DOI: https://doi.org/10.52756/ijerr.2024.v41spl.023 Int. J. Exp. Res. Rev., Vol.

41: 280-289 (2024)

Women Empowerment in India since 1947: A Critical Analysis

Madhu Arora1*, Poonam Khurana2 and Laxmi Rani1

1
Department of Management, New Delhi Institute of Management, Tughlakabad Institutional Area-110062, New
Delhi, India; 2Department of Management, Vivekanand Institute of Professional Studies, Pitampura- 110034, Delhi,
India
E-mail/Orcid Id:
MA, [email protected], https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9554-3176; PK, [email protected], https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5134-
9147; LR, [email protected], https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2495-2375

Article History: Abstract: The issue of women's empowerment is not new, this is an early concept. To
Received: 17th
Jun., 2024
empower the nation, we should empower the women. Discrimination between men
Accepted: 28th Jul., 2024 and women, domestic violence, lack of education, lack of awareness about the
Published: 30th Jul., 2024 government's efforts for women's empowerment and sexual harassment are the most
common problems faced by women. Although various measures have been taken by
Keywords: the government and supporting bodies. The purposes of this paper are to explore the
Efforts, Empowerment, various schemes, acts, and laws for women's empowerment and to identify the status
Government, India, Women of women at present. For this research, various secondary resources like research
papers, reports by various ministry organisations and reports by government, non-
government and international organizations are used. Government and other
supporting bodies' role in women's empowerment is reviewed. Based on analysis, it
was found that women are not aware of their social and legal rights, especially in rural
areas. They feel inferior to themselves economically or socially or prestigiously
How to cite this Article: compared to men. Though several steps have been taken by the government and other
Madhu Arora, Poonam Khurana and Laxmi supporting bodies like NGO’s, still the women's condition in society is not
Rani (2024). Women Empowerment in India
since 1947: A Critical Analysis. International satisfactory. Various rules and regulations have been formulated but the government
Journal of Experimental Research and must ensure that these rules are followed properly in the society. Women do not even
Review, 41(spl.), 280-289.
DOI: know their rights; education can improve these inequalities. So, more efforts need to
https://doi.org/10.52756/ijerr.2024.v41spl.023 be made for women empowerment, so that women can use their full potential and
contribute to themselves, family, society, and country. At the end of research paper, it
was concluded that to encourage women empowerment women’s education,
employment opportunities and support for self-employment must be promoted.

Introduction Women’s empowerment is not an independent

Consideration of women’s point of view, giving variable. It is a dependent variable that depends on
importance to them or efforts to improve the position of several factors like the education of women (literate or
women by educating them, providing resources, giving illiterate), location of the women (rural or urban), caste
training, and improving their awareness is called women etc. Government and other social bodies are actively
empowerment (Naila, 2005; Sarah, 2005; Endalcachew, participating to improve females' health, education,
2016). Women empowerment promotes women to make awareness, training, and financial help. But despite
decisions and help them with different problems with the several efforts, a gap is found between the expected
help of various laws, acts, schemes etc (Endalcachew, women empowerment and actual women empowerment
2016). Now that women are considering their self-worth, due to a gap in result of efforts taken for women
they actively participate in every field to fulfil their empowerment (Shettar et al., 2015).
dreams. Now a days, women are getting respectable jobs in all
fields and areas. Still, women have not full freed from

*Corresponding Author: [email protected] 280

 Int. J. Exp. Res. Rev., Vol. 41: 280-289 (2024)
gender discrimination, mental and physical harassment in employment, development, and empowerment. The
the society. Only some women can use their full research conducted in rural Punjab and Sindhi also
potential. Therefore, everyone should promote the reveals that the women actively involved in agriculture
women to utilise their full potential (Hazarika, 2011). are more empowered than women who are not involved.
Formal system of education was introduced by the The findings also support that women actively involved
British Government in India before independence. But for in the agricultural sector are also active in family
the women, this system was not followed, women got the planning (Mubeen et al., 2022). For women
education through Zenana system or home education. The empowerment, self-help groups have been working from
British government even supported the zenana system. the initial time of women's empowerment. Government
So, formal education was provided to only men, women of India has also given importance to self-help groups for
did not have the right to formal education (Desai and women's empowerment (Reshi, 2023). Result findings
Krishnaraj, 1987). also revealed that women's participation in household
In the past, women have suffered very much in the decision-making, status of earning and various schemes
society. Women were considered the devoid members of for women's empowerment have a significant positive
society as well as family. Women were not even given impact on women empowerment with the help of
basic rights like freedom to speak, voting etc. But with financial inclusion (Pal et al., 2022). Digital banking
the passage of time, women? Are realizing their self- should be promoted for easy access to financial services
worth. The Indian government is making various efforts (Kaur and Batra, 2023).
for women's empowerment, but women are still facing Media is also important for women empowerment if
many problems (Priyadarshini, 2016). the media performs its duties with responsibilities. Media
should have a positive attitude toward women's problems.
Model of women's empowerment Now a days, women are also participating and working in
The process of women's empowerment takes place media as a consumer and a media person also. If the
over a period that enables women who can make choices, media understand the roles and responsibilities to remove
have control of resources, and make strategies for their the exploitation of women and empowerment of women,
life (Lee-Rife, 2010). Author focused on the first order it could help in women's empowerment as well as the
priorities in life, like livelihood decisions, marriage development of society and nation (Bhat, 2022). Women
choice and child decisions, which should be taken as the empowerment is not achieved completely. They are not
priority decisions and consider the impact of this decision given equal status, freedom, and dignity as man. The
on second-order priorities like moral values in children, government of India is trying to strengthen the status of
day-to-day decisions and taking care of families which women's empowerment through various laws, acts,
are less important. guidelines, packages, subsidies, and schemes for women
Resources Agency Achievements empowerment. There is no doubt that the government is
(Input) (Procedure) (Output) making lots of efforts for women's empowerment and
women are also doing well in every field. They are
Figure 1. Three-Dimensional Model. getting higher education and getting higher positions at
(Source: Kabeer, 1999) jobs also. They are contributing towards the development
The author focused on the resources like human, of society. But despite several efforts by the government
material, money etc. as the precondition of empowerment and NGOs, the status of women's empowerment is not
(Kabeer, 1999). But having resources only is not satisfactory. Women's empowerment can be accelerated
sufficient. Women must have the knowledge of available by providing education and opportunities for women
resources. They should also know how to utilise the empowerment. Sometimes, women also create hurdles in
resources (Malhotra et al., 2002). According to Kabeer, women empowerment by creating gender biases between
Women empowerment is an end as well as a means to male children and female child. This attitude should be
achieve the end. For example- Education may be an end change. Otherwise, women's empowerment will not have
or a means to achieve the end. So, women empowerment any meaning (Sangwan and Bawa, 2022).
starts with resources, followed by the process, and finally Research is conducted to investigate the status of
ends with women empowerment or means for women Indians as compared to other countries and investigate the
empowerment. preparation to achieve Goal -5 of sustainable
The under developed Countries are mostly dependent development of the United Nations. In this paper, an
agricultural sector. It is the most important factor of attempt is made to critically examines the status of
DOI: https://doi.org/10.52756/ijerr.2024.v41spl.023
281
 Int. J. Exp. Res. Rev., Vol. 41: 280-289 (2024)
women in India. This paper discusses various efforts for decision-making. Improving women's education and
women empowerment like constitution rules, acts, employability can empower them and strengthen their
legislation, plans and programmes by the government. decision-making confidence (Ang & Lai, 2023).
The India ranks low among other countries. Research Domestic violence is a crime that impacts women all over
found that to achieve SDG-5 by 2030, the government the world. The impact of employment on the status of
should revise and improve women empowerment’s women in reducing domestic violence is very
policies (Singh and Singh, 2020). Women's Freedom to much. There is a requirement for policies that improve
take decisions and freedom of movement varies women’s employability (Kinyondo and Joseph, 2020).
considerably with age, education, and employment. Training should be designed for unemployed people
Usually, women do not have the right to say where their according to the needs and requirements of vocational
earnings are spent. Control over cash earnings increased skills needs of businesses. Women in our society can
with age and education. The paper also revealed that better explain the causes of their unemployment, like
educational level and employment opportunities for self-failures like lack of education, lack of required skills
women are the essential factors accelerating women's to perform a job etc (Willot and Stevenson, 2006). Digital
empowerment, but it solely does not depend on these technology is also playing an important role in skills
factors. Women empowerment also depends on the enhancement (Malhotra et al., 2023). Digital payments
attitude of society toward women. Society needs to treat should also be promoted in transforming the financial
mean and women equally, without any gender landscape of India (Dutta, 2023). Challenges and
discrimination (Menon et al., 2020). In research, a opportunities have been raised for economic expansion
negative correlation is found between other family and job creation due to globalization and technological
members' income and women's entry for employment. development. The nation can be developed into a
Some other factors like caste, religion, cultural and productive, innovative, and competitive nation with
economic factors also affect the women's empowerment. skilled human potential. By focusing only on education
Individual and household factors also determine women's and ignoring the other skills and career counseling and
employment (Sarkar et al., 2019). creating jobs based on the skill education would not
Women empowerment is essential for the produce the desired results. Environment and support to
development of society and getting attention now a days develop technical skills and transferable skills are most
(Arora, 2024). Women education is a vital tool for important. Technical skills training should be provided as
women's empowerment. Education leads a reduction in an essential element of basic education but cannot replace
gender biasness and improve the status of women within it (Behera and Gaur, 2022). Information and
the family. To improve women's education, the communication technology impact women's personalities,
government should establish schools, universities, their perception, and their position in society. However,
institutions, etc., for women or girls (Ahmad Bhat, 2015). to get the full advantages of ICT, the initiative should be
Multimedia strategies should be adopted for effective taken as required (Rabayah, 2010). Work from home or
learning (Torkos, 2023). To empower women, education freelancing offers a significant financial benefit to share
is most important, Education can improve the economic information, skills, abilities, and time. The large group of
and social status of women. Women must have equal entrepreneurs are part-time employees doing the
opportunities without any gender biasness. Child freelancing. This management of both tasks provides
marriage is continued in some villages. It should be higher financial benefits to both. This is a major reason
eliminated from society. Women should be given the for freelancing by organisations (Rawoof et al., 2021).
freedom to live their life in their own way. Some women Education is one of the most important methods for
are living in abusive relationships because of society. involving and empowering any person or society. It is
Family members should support their daughters if they do most required for women to support women to develop
not want to live with their husbands due to abusive socially and economically. Various departments are
relationships (Babbar, 2022). Intervention focusing on engaged in empowering women's empowerment, whether
child welfare through women's empowerment may it is the hospitality department and tourism department or
develop second-order impacts on intra-household any other department. Most hotels and tourist companies
decision-making. But, the stickiness of social norms may are trying to offer women jobs and empower them
limit women's empowerment and gender roles (Kandpal socially and financially (Smita and Patel, 2022). E-
& Baylis, 2019). Women’s socio-economic situation learning is also a very popular learning method (Nain,
greatly impacts their household status and participation in 2023).
DOI: https://doi.org/10.52756/ijerr.2024.v41spl.023
282
 Int. J. Exp. Res. Rev., Vol. 41: 280-289 (2024)
Research Gap 1951, 1981, 1991, 2001, 2011 and 2021. Data was taken
In the past, women faced lots of challenges and from the survey by National Statistical Office 1941,
problem. Males were treated superior in comparison to 1951, 1981, 1991, 2001, 2011 and 2021.
female members. Even women did not have the right to Data is presented and analysed in the form of tables,
education. But after independence, according to our graphs, bars, and charts. NVivo is used to calculate the
constitution, women have given equal rights to men. frequency count.
Government has made various provisions, legislative and
schemes for women's empowerment, but still, women are Result
not empowered equal to men. So, the purpose of this Provisions for women's empowerment
research is to identify the gap in women's empowerment Women are capable of fulfilling their responsibilities
and suggest measures to improve the women's in the same manner as men do, so women should also be
empowerment. developed in the same manner as men. So certain
Research Objectives provisions are made in our constitution for the females,
# To study the various provisions, legislative So, that they also get equal treatment like men. These
measures, and schemes for women's empowerment. provisions are-
# To analyze the actual position of women 1. Article 14 (equality before law),
empowerment. 2. Article 15 to prohibit the discrimination based on
# To analyze the gap in actual and expected gender, religion, sex, race etc.,
empowerment and suggest measures to improve 3. Article 16 to the equal opportunities at public
women's empowerment status. employment,
4. Article 19 to ensure the freedom of speech,
Materials and Methods movement, and choice of religion,
This study focused on investigating women's status in 5. Article 21 to promote personal liberty,
our country and identifying the gap between expected 6. Article 23 to prohibit human and workforce
women empowerment and actual empowerment. Also trafficking,
suggest some practices to minimize this gap. This 7. Article 38 for the welfare of people,
research is based on the secondary data. Data regarding 8. Article 41 for public assistance and to promote the
initiatives and efforts taken for the empowerment of right to work and education,
9.
women is taken from the website of National Article 42 to maintain working conditions and
Commission for women, research papers and reports by maternity benefits.
government organizations. To investigate the actual Legislative measures for women's empowerment
position of women, data regarding crimes against women, For the protection of women's right and to promote
global gender gap, and literacy rate is taken. Various them various legislative measure were taken. These
secondary resources like research papers, reports by measures are-
various organizations working under the ministry and 1. Special marriage act, 1954
reports by government, non-government and international 2. The Hindu marriage act, 1955
organizations are used to collect data. 3. Hindu minority and guardship act 1956
Data collection 4. The Hindu succession act, 1956
Crime report against women is analysed with specific 5. The immoral traffic act, 1956
reference to seven highest crime states in India for the 6. Dowry prohibition act, 1961
years 2019, 2020, 2021. Data for crime in the year 2022 7. The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961
is not available, so it is not used for analysis. Crime 8. Contract Labor Act, 1970 & Factories Act, 1948
reports were taken from the 2019, 2020 and 2021 9. The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976
National Crime Records Bureau reports. India position in 10. Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005
Global Gender Gap is analysed for the year 2014, 2017, 11. The indecent representation of women (prohibition)
2020 and 2023 as the overall gender gap and gender gap Act, 1986
on different parameters like economic involvement, 12. Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987
educational status, Health empowerment, and political 13. Protection of women from domestic violence Act,
participation. Data was taken from the 2014, 2016, 2018, 2005
2020, and 2023 reports of world economic forum. 14. Prohibition of child marriage Act
Women's Literacy rate in India is analyzed for 1941, 15. The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace

DOI: https://doi.org/10.52756/ijerr.2024.v41spl.023
283
 Int. J. Exp. Res. Rev., Vol. 41: 280-289 (2024)
(Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013
Crimes in different states
16. The Trafficking in Persons (Prevention, Care and
Rehabilitation) Bill, 2021. 39526
Maharashtra
Government Schemes for Women Empowerment
UP 56083
Some of the government schemes are-
1. Beti Bachao Beti Padhao that promotes girls’ Rajasthan 40,738

education Telangana 34,535

2. STEP that supports employment by offering training 16,658
Haryana
to them
Odisha 31,352
3. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan was started to promote
education Assam 29,046
4. The National Literacy Mission is also one of the
0 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000
programs for supporting education
5. National Rural Health Mission was started to 2021 2020 2019
improve the health status of women
6. Self Help Groups
Figure 2. State with the highest number of crimes in
7. Gender budgeting India.
8. NMEW (National Mission for Empowerment of Crime against women and children is increasing, but
Women) all cases were not being charge-sheeted. There is 40%
9. Swadhar scheme increase in cases but only 31% being charge sheeted.
10. Development of Women & Children in Rural Areas Mostly registered cases were under the cruelty with
(DWCRA) husband or other family members. The maximum number
11. Swayamsidha Scheme of cases were from Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and
12. SABLA etc. are also some schemes for Maharashtra. Number of cases in 2021 in Uttar Pradesh
empowerment of women.
Table 1. State with the highest number of crimes in India.
Year/S Maharas
Assam Odisha Haryana Telangana Rajasthan UP
tate htra
2019 30,025 23,183 14,683 18,394 41,550 59853 37144
2020 26,352 25,489 13,000 17,791 34,535 49385 31954
2021 29,046 31,352 16,658 34,535 40,738 56083 39526
Source: Compiled by Author based on National Crime Records Bureau report of 2019, 2020 and 2021.
was 56,083. Crime against women should be minimized
Crime against Women and reporting of cases should be promoted so that crime
As per NCRB report, the crime rate against can be avoided.
women increased from the year 2020 to 2021. In the Position of India in Global Gender Gap
year 2020, the crime rate was 56.5 percent while in In the year 2017, the ranking of India had
2021, it was 64.5 percent. Four categories of crimes improved. India had 108 ranking out of 144
are cruelty by husband or other family members, countries in 2016. In the year 2023, India has 127
Assault on women, rape, and kidnapping. Out of ranking out of 146 countries, which is not
these categories, the maximum crimes were under satisfactory. Political empowerment Index is 59 in
the category of cruelty by husband or other family 2023, which has increased from the year 2020.
members (31.8 Percent). Maximum number of Health and survival index in 2023 is 142 out of 146
reported crimes were from the Uttar Pradesh countries. India is the 5 th last country in Health and
(56,083) in 2021. Minimum number of registered Survival Index. The educational attainment index is
crimes was in Nagaland. In the year 2021, only 507 26 in 2023, which is quite better than the previous
cases were registered under Domestic violence years. Economic participation and opportunity index
which is only .01 percent of registered crimes in 2023 is 142 out of 146 countries. India is 4 th last
against women. It is showing under-reporting of in Economic participation and opportunity index.
cases. There is a need for improvement in the global gender
gap index (https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-

DOI: https://doi.org/10.52756/ijerr.2024.v41spl.023
284
 Int. J. Exp. Res. Rev., Vol. 41: 280-289 (2024)
gender-gap-report-2023/in-full/benchmarking-gender-
gaps-2023/). Literacy rate in India
Table 2. Position of India in Global Gender Gap. 90
Year 2023 2020 2017 2014 80
Global Index 127 112(0.6 108(0.6 114 70
(0.643) 68) 69) (0.6455) 60
Economic 142 149(.35 139(0.3 134
50
Participation (0.367) 4) 76) (0.4096)
and 40
Opportunity 30
Educational 26 112(0.9 112(0.9 126 20
attainment (1.000) 62) 52) (0.8503)
Health and 142 150(0.9 141(0.9 141 10
survival (0.950) 44) 42) (0.9366) 0
Political 59 18(0.44 15(0.40 15 Person Male Female
Empowerment (0.253) 1) 7) (0.3855)
2021 2011 2001 1991 1981 1951 1941
Source: Compiled by Author based on Global Gender Gap
Report 2014, 2017 and 2020, 2023 by World Economic Figure 4. Literacy rate in India.
Forum Word Frequency
Of the 50 most frequently used keywords, women,
Global Gender Gap empowerment, education, development, and gender are
the most frequently used keywords for research.
Political Empowerment

Health and survival

Educational attainment
Economic Participation and
Opportunity
Global Index

0 50 100 150 200

2014 2017 2020 2023

Figure 3. India’s position in Global Gender Gap

Figure 5. Word Frequency.
Literacy Rate in India
Literacy rate in India is improving but at a slow rate Table 4. Word Frequency table.
Weighted
now. In 2021, the overall literacy rate was 77.7%, male
Word Length Count Percentage
literacy rate was 84.7%, and female literacy rate was (%)
70.3%. Literacy rate for both males and females are access 6 597 0.19
increasing but a gap is found in the literacy of male and among 5 400 0.13
Female. There should be improvement in literacy rate and analysis 8 489 0.16
children 8 499 0.16
no gap should be in male and female literacy rate decision 8 768 0.24
(Sindhu, 2012 and https://www.findeasy.in/indian-states- development 11 1684 0.54
by-literacy-rate/). different 9 411 0.13
Table 3. Literacy Rate in India. discrimination 14 474 0.15
Years Person Male Female economic 8 1537 0.49
2021 77.7 84.7 70.3
education 9 2386 0.76
2011 74 82.1 65.46 employment 10 1358 0.43
2001 62.38 76.0 54.0 empowerment 11 4101 1.31
1991 52.1 63.9 39.2 equality 8 493 0.16
1981 36.2 46.9 24.8 family 6 887 0.28
1951 16.7 24.9 7.3 female 6 970 0.31
1941 16.1 24.9 7.3 gender 6 1615 0.51
Source: Literacy rate in India compiled by Author based on survey by government 10 509 0.16
National Statistical Office in 1941, 1951, 1981, 1991, 2001, 2011 and
health 6 588 0.19
2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.52756/ijerr.2024.v41spl.023
285
 Int. J. Exp. Res. Rev., Vol. 41: 280-289 (2024)
higher 6 710 0.23 out of 146 countries in global gender gap in 2023,
household 9 569 0.18 which is not satisfactory. Political empowerment
impact 6 401 0.13
Index is 59 out of 146 countries, Health and survival
important 9 452 0.14
income 6 397 0.13 index is 142 out of 146 countries. India is the 5 th last
India 5 1468 0.47 country in Health and survival index. The
international 13 593 0.19 educational attainment index is 26, and Economic
journal 7 849 0.27 participation and opportunity index is 142 out of 146
labour 5 446 0.14
countries. India is 4 th last in the Economic
level 5 701 0.22
making 6 758 0.24 participation and opportunity index (Global gender
national 8 401 0.13 gap report, 2023). Female literacy rate is still less than
opportunities 13 456 0.15 the male rate as per the report of the literacy rate in India
Pakistan 8 607 0.19 (Literacy rate in India, 2021). Various rules and
participation 13 867 0.28
political 9 754 0.24 regulations have been formulated, but the government
power 5 603 0.19 must ensure that these rules are followed properly.
process 7 479 0.15 Women do not even know their rights. Education can
research 8 977 0.31 improve these inequalities. So, more efforts need to be
resources 9 434 0.14
made for women's empowerment so that women can use
rights 6 619 0.20
rural 5 779 0.25 their full potential and contribute to themselves, family,
social 6 1552 0.49 society, and country. India also lacks health care. Only
society 7 839 0.27 healthy women can use their full potential. Healthcare
status 6 697 0.22 facilities should be provided to them and regular
study 5 992 0.32
healthcare check-ups and camps should be organized for
table 5 428 0.14
university 10 443 0.14 them. Female population rate is decreasing in India. Girls
urban 5 507 0.16 are killed in the womb of a mother. People checked the
women 5 11817 3.76 gender of the child before birth, although it is illegal.
working 7 624 0.20 Government must ensure that rules should be followed
world 5 557 0.18
Source: Created by Author in NVivo
strictly. Women can be empowered by teaching them the
Discussion and Conclusion income-generating skills like gardening, sewing etc.
Women's Empowerment is the need of society Women and other members have raised their voices for
because it is not beneficial for women only. Women women. Women themselves do not take steps for
empowerment is a most effective tool for the themselves. The number of registered cases against crime
development of society as well as country. Research has against women is much less in comparison to actual
shown that women are now doing better in every field cases. Women also need motivation that they can do
and are more empowered. Various legislation measures anything. Family members must boost their morale and
trust in them. Women should not be discriminated against
have been taken for women's empowerment. There are
various acts for equal treatment of women, protection of based on age, caste, colour, race etc. Family members
women against domestic violence and to promote must give them examples of ideal women to motivate
women's empowerment. Various schemes and programs them. Women entrepreneurship is very challenging.
are also going on for women's empowerment (Mandal, Usually, women do not have money for business and
2003). family members also do not give a female financial
Various NGOs are also working for women's support compared to a male. Government must support
empowerment but despite so many efforts, Women are women's businesses financially. Women are not aware of
facing lots of challenges. Gender-based discrimination, their rights in society. So, awareness programs should be
organized to make people aware of gender
especially in the family and society, domestic violence,
and lack of resources available for women are the major discrimination, crime against women etc. Women are
problems of women empowerment faced by women. still fighting for equal job opportunities. They should get
Women are facing various crimes, especially in UP, job opportunities. Sometimes, they do not get equal pay
Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Assam, Odisha, Telangana and for equal work. Women must raise their voices against
Haryana, and less reporting of crime cases is observed such types of discrimination.
(National Crime Records Bureau report, 2021). There is a
significant global gender gap. India has 127 ranking
DOI: https://doi.org/10.52756/ijerr.2024.v41spl.023
286
 Int. J. Exp. Res. Rev., Vol. 41: 280-289 (2024)
Limitations and future scope of studies https://doi.org/10.56411/anusandhan.2023.v5i2.2
The research findings highlight the scope for policy 7-36.
discussion and intervention for the empowerment of Endalcachew, B. (2016). The role of empowering
women. But, this research was based only on secondary women and achieving gender equality to the
data, so future research can also be conducted based on sustainable development of Ethiopia, Pacific
primary data also. So, the actual problems of women can Science Review B: Humanities and Social
be identified despite several provisions, schemes, and Sciences, 2(1), 38.
legislative measures for women's empowerment. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405
883116300508.
Acknowledgement Hazarika D. (2011). Women Empowerment in India: A
This manuscript is a part of a ICSSR sponsored Brief Discussion, International Journal of
project on Women Empowerment and Employability: An Educational Planning & Administration, 1(3),
Insight since independence to Azadi ka Amrit Mahotsav 199-202. http://www.ripublication.com/ijepa.htm.
and Prophecies 2047. https://iasbaba.com/2022/08/national-crime-records-
bureau-ncrb-report/
Conflict of Interest https://www.findeasy.in/indian-states-by-literacy-rate/
The authors declare no conflict of interest. https://www.insightsonindia.com/2022/08/30/data-
statistics-from-national-crime-records-bureau/
References
https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-
Ang, C. W., & Lai, S. L. (2023). Women's
report-2023/in-full/benchmarking-gender-gaps-
Empowerment in Malaysia and Indonesia: The
2023/
Autonomy of Women in Household Decision-
Kabeer N. (1999). Resources, agency, achievements:
Making, Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences &
reflections on the measurement of women’s
Humanities, 31(2).
empowerment, Development and Change, 30(3),
https://doi.org/10.47836/pjssh.31.2.22.
435–64.
Arora, M., Khurana, P., & Rani, L. (2024). Women
https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00125.
empowerment and employment since 1947: A
Kandpal, E., & Baylis, K. (2019). The social lives of
bibliometric analysis. VEETHIKA-An
married women: Peer effects in female autonomy
International Interdisciplinary Research
and investments in children, Journal of
Journal, 10(1), 7-16.
Development Economics, 140, 26-43.
https://doi.org/10.48001/veethika.2024.10.01.002.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S
Babbar J. (2022). Women Empowerment, Research
0304387818305042?via%3Dihub.
Journal of English, 7(1), 118-121.
Kaur, B., & Batra, N. (2023). Technology adoption of
https://www.rjoe.org.in/Files/v7i1/24.RJOE-Jyoti(118-
digital banking and women consumers: An
121).pdf.
empirical investigation. International Journal of
Behera, B., & Gaur, M. (2022). Skill Development
Experimental Research and Review, 32, 278-287.
Training Fueling Employability in India, Journal
https://doi.org/10.52756/ijerr.2023.v32.024
of Xidian University, 16(2), 332-347.
Kinyondo, A., & Joseph, M. (2021). Women’s
https://icrrd.com/public/media/14-03-2022-
employment status and domestic violence in
005110Skill-Development-Training.pdf.
Tanzania: How do they link? International
Bhat R.M. (2022). Women Exploitation in the
Journal of Social Welfare, 30(2), 216-225.
Contemporary India: Importance of Media to
https://doi.org/10.1111/ijsw.12440.
Impede it. JWES, 2(02), 27-30.
Lee‐Rife, S.M. (2010). Women's empowerment and
https://journal.hmjournals.com/index.php/JWES.
reproductive experiences over the lifecourse, Soc
Bhat, R. A. (2015). Role of Education in the
Sci Med.
Empowerment of Women in India. Journal of
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S
Education and Practice, 6(10), 188-191.
0277953610003497.
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1081705.
Malhotra A, Schuler SR, and Boender C. (2002).
Desai N. & Krishnaraj M. (1987). Women and Society
Measuring women’s empowerment as variable in
in India, Delhi, Ajanta Publication, pp. 148.
international development, World Bank Gender
Dutta, A. (2023). Digital payment trends, issues and
and Development Group Background paper.
opportunities in India. Anusandhan, 5(2), 27-36.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.52756/ijerr.2024.v41spl.023
287
 Int. J. Exp. Res. Rev., Vol. 41: 280-289 (2024)
Malhotra, S., Anil, K., & Kaur, A. (2023). Impact of study of Palestine. The Journal of Community
Social Entrepreneurship on Digital Technology Informatics, 6(1),
and Students’ Skill Set in Higher Education https://openjournals.uwaterloo.ca/index.php/JoCI/article
Institutions: A Structured Equation /view/2442/3017.
Model. International Journal of Experimental Rawoof, H. A., Ahmed, K.A., & Saeed, N. (2021). The
Research and Review, 35, 54-61. role of online freelancing: Increasing women
https://doi.org/10.52756/ijerr.2023.v35spl.006 empowerment in Pakistan, Int. J. Disaster
Mandal J. (2003). Women and Reservation in India, Recovery Bus. Continuity, 12, 1179-1188.
Kalpaz Publication, New Delhi, pp.35. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hira-A-
https://books.google.co.in/books/about/Women_a Rawoof/publication/353751164_The_Role_of_O
nd_Reservation_in_India.html?id=hju3AAAAIA nline_Freelancing_Increasing_Women_Empower
AJ&redir_esc=y. ment_in_Pakistan/links/610e202b1ca20f6f86076
Menon, S. Menon, R., & Sharma, S. (2020). A Study on de1/The-Role-of-Online-Freelancing-Increasing-
the Status of Women's Empowerment in urban Women-Empowerment-in-Pakistan.pdf.
Bangalore, India, Journal of International Reshi, I. A. (2023). Women’s self-help groups – Role in
Women's Studies, 21. poverty nexus and empowerment, 3(1),79-84.
https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol21/iss5/6/. https://garuda.kemdikbud.go.id/documents/detail/
Mubeen S. et al., (2022). Education, Employment and 3285398.
Women Empowerment in an Agrarian Economy: Sangwan, R., & Bawa, Y. (2022). Government schemes
A Case Study, International Conference on for women empowerment, Proceedings of
Business Analytics for Technology and Security DGHE, Haryana approved National Seminar on
(ICBATS), Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 1-9. Gender Sensitive Issues and Women
https://doi.org/10.1109/ICBATS54253.2022.9759 Empowerment, ISBN: 978-81-955611-1-7.
025. https://www.sdcollegeambala.ac.in/wp-
Naila, K. (2005). Gender equality and women content/uploads/2022/12/Gender-Issue-2022-P-
empowerment: A critical analysis of the third 37.pdf.
millennium development goal 1, Gender & Sarah, M. (2005). Assessing women's empowerment:
Development, 13(1), 13- 24. towards a conceptual framework, Journal of
https://doi.org/10.1080/13552070512331332273. International Development, 17(2), 243–257.
Nain, H. (2023). Examining the Pandemic Induced https://ibave.weebly.com/uploads/1/0/7/4/107413
Adoption of E-Learning Through a UTAUT 54/assessing_women_empoerment_wiley.pdf.
Model Approach. International Journal of Sarkar, S., S. Soham & K. Stephan (2019). Employment
Experimental Research and Review, 35, 16-24. transitions of women in India: A panel analysis,
https://doi.org/10.52756/ijerr.2023.v35spl.002. World Development, 115, 291-309.
Pal, M., H. Gupta, & Y. C. Joshi (2022). Social and https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S
economic empowerment of women through 0305750X18304315.
financial inclusion: empirical evidence from Shettar, M. R., Ajja, H., Jigalur, K.S., & Sheshgiri, S.M.
India. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion, 41(2), (2015). A Study on Issues and Challenges of
294-305. Women Empowerment in India, Journal of
https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10. Business and Management, 17(4), 13-19.
1108/EDI-04-2021-0113/full/html. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353971
Priyadharshini, R. Thiyagarajan, V. Kumar and T. 290_THE_STUDY_ON_ISSUES_AND_CHALL
Radhu (2016). Women empowerment towards ENGES_OF_WOMEN_EMPOWERMENT_IN_
developing India, IEEE Region 10 Humanitarian INDIA.
Technology Conference (R10-HTC), Agra, India, Shindu J. (2012). Women’s Empowerment through
pp. 1-6. Education, Abhinav Journal, 1(11), 3.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316443616_ https://ijepr.org/panel/assets/papers/576ij11.pdf.
Women_empowerment_towards_developing_Ind Singh, S., & Singh, A. (2020). Women Empowerment
ia. in India: A Critical Analysis, Tathapi (UGC Care
Rabayah, K. S. (2010). Economic and social Journal), 19(44), ISSN: 2320-0693.
empowerment of women through ICT: a case https://www.sdcollegeambala.ac.in/wp-
DOI: https://doi.org/10.52756/ijerr.2024.v41spl.023
288
 Int. J. Exp. Res. Rev., Vol. 41: 280-289 (2024)
content/uploads/2022/12/Gender-Issue-2022-P- Torkos, H. (2023). The role of multimedia teaching-
37.pdf. Learning strategies in the development of
Smita, M., & Patel, D.S. (2022). Training the 12th pass competencies in primary school pupils,
out girls on hospitality management operations Anusandhan, 5(2), 1-10.
for providing them employability, Stochastic https://doi.org/10.56411/anusandhan.2023.v5i2.1-10.
Modeling, 26(3), 489-493. Willott, J., & Stevenson, J. (2006). An analysis of
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/amarnath-Thakur- gendered attitudes and responses to employability
4/publication/363504696_57729- training, Journal of Vocational Education and
735/links/632048fd873eca0c0084bb1d/57729- Training, 58(4), 441-453.
735.pdf#page=504. https://doi.org/10.1080/13636820601005651.

How to cite this Article:

Madhu Arora, Poonam Khurana and Laxmi Rani (2024). Women Empowerment in India since 1947: A Critical Analysis. International
Journal of Experimental Research and Review, 41(spl.), 280-289.
DOI : https://doi.org/10.52756/ijerr.2024.v41spl.023

DOI: https://doi.org/10.52756/ijerr.2024.v41spl.023
289