Chapter 8: Parametric and Polar Curves

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In this chapter, we will introduce other ways of describing curves than
the standard y = f (x) formulation. We will discuss the following:

1. Parametric curves: their slopes, arc lengths, and areas of regions

defined by these curves (§8.2–8.4),

2. Polar coordinates and polar curves (§8.5).

3. Slopes, areas and arc lengths associated with polar curves (§8.6).

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§8.2 Parametric Curves
Suppose an object moves around the xy-plane so that its coordinates at
time t are
x = f (t), y = g(t).
If f and g are continuous on the same interval t ∈ [a, b], this traces a
curve C, called a parametric curve. The independent variable t is called
the parameter.

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Example 1: Sketch and identify the parametric curve

x = t2 − 1, y =t+1 (−∞ < t < ∞).

Solution: We eliminate the parameter t from the equations to obtain a

locus in terms of x and y only:

t = y − 1 =⇒ x = (y − 1)2 − 1 = y 2 − 2y.

Since y → ±∞ as t → ±∞, the parametric curve traces out the whole

parabola x = y 2 − 2y.

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Remarks:
1. Parametric curves have a direction.
▶ The particle moves from bottom to top as t increases.

2. Different parametric curves can trace out the same set of points.
The following parametric curves all trace out the same parabola:
▶ x = t2 − 1, y = t + 1 (−∞ < t < ∞)
▶ x = t2 − 1, y = 1 − t (−∞ < t < ∞)
Thus, C is not just a set of points: the dependence on t is important.
Information is lost when t is eliminated.
If t is eliminated, the new equation may contain points that were not
in the original parametric curve C.

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Example 2: Sketch and identify the parametric curve

x = 3 cos t, y = 3 sin t (0 ≤ t ≤ 3π/2).

Solution: Since

x2 + y 2 = 9 cos2 t + 9 sin2 t = 9,

all points on the curve lie on the circle of

radius 3. However, since 0 ≤ t ≤ 3π/2,
the curve contains no points in the 4th
quadrant. Therefore, not every point on
the circle is part of the parametric curve.

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Interesting plane curves and their parametrizations
Example 3: The straight line passing through two points P0 = (x0 , y0 )
and P1 = (x1 , y1 ) has parametric equations
(
x = x0 + t(x1 − x0 )
(−∞ < t < ∞)
y = y0 + t(y1 − y0 )

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Example 4: Sketch and identify the parametric curve

x = a cos t, y = b sin t (0 ≤ t ≤ 2π),

where a > b > 0.

Solution: Since

x2 y 2
+ 2 = cos2 t + sin2 t = 1,
a2 b
the curve is an ellipse with width 2a and
height 2b.

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Example 5: If a circle of radius a rolls without slipping along a straight
line, find the path followed by a point fixed on the circle. This path is
called a cycloid.

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Suppose the circle rolls along the x-axis from O to T . If the point on the
circle originally at O is now be located at P (x, y), then

segment OT = arc P T = at
x = at − a sin t
y = a − a cos t.

x = a(t − sin t)
y = a(1 − cos t)

Note: Even though both x(t) and y(t) are differentiable, the curve is not
smooth, but has cusps at points corresponding to t = 2nπ, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

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§8.3 Smooth Parametric Curves and Their Slopes
A plane curve is called smooth if it has a tangent line at every point P ,
and if this tangent turns continuously as P moves along the curve.
Example 6: Consider the parametric curve

x = f (t) = t2 , y = g(t) = t3 (−∞ < t < ∞).

Eliminating t leads to

t = y 1/3 =⇒ x = y 2/3 ,

which has a cusp at (0, 0), i.e., when t = 0.

Note that

f ′ (0) = 2t|t=0 = 0,
g ′ (0) = 3t2 t=0
= 0.

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Tangents and normals to parametric curves
Let C be the parametric curve x = f (t), y = g(t). If f ′ and g ′ are
continuous and not both zero at t0 , then its tangent and normal lines at
(f (t0 ), g(t0 )) is given by

Tangent Normal
( (
x = f (t0 ) + f ′ (t0 )(t − t0 ) x = f (t0 ) + g ′ (t0 )(t − t0 )
y = g(t0 ) + g ′ (t0 )(t − t0 ) y = g(t0 ) − f ′ (t0 )(t − t0 )

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Theorem
Let C be the parametric curve x = f (t), y = g(t), where f ′ (t) and g ′ (t)
are continuous on an interval I. If f ′ (t) ̸= 0 on I, then C is smooth and
has at each t a tangent line with slope

dy g ′ (t)
= ′ .
dx f (t)

If g ′ (t) ̸= 0 on I, then C is smooth and has at each t a normal line with

slope
dx f ′ (t)
− =− ′ .
dy g (t)
Thus, C is smooth except possibly at points where f ′ (t) and g ′ (t) are both
zero.

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Example 7: Find equations of the tangent and normal lines to the
parametric curve x = t2 − t, y = t2 + t at the point where t = 2.

Solution: At t = 2, we have x = 2, y = 6 and

dx dy
= 2t − 1 = 3, = 2t + 1 = 5.
dt dt
Hence, the tangent and normal lines are
(
x = 2 + 3(t − 2) 5
Tangent: or y = (x − 2) + 6;
y = 6 + 5(t − 2) 3
(
x = 2 + 5(t − 2) 3
Normal: or y = − (x − 2) + 6.
y = 6 − 3(t − 2) 5

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Warning: If f and g are both continuously differentiable and

f ′ (t0 ) = g ′ (t0 ) = 0,

the curve x = f (t) and y = g(t) may or may not be smooth at t0 ;

anything can happen.

Example 8: The curve

(
x = t3
(−∞ < t < ∞)
y = t6

is just the parabola y = x2 , so it is smooth everywhere, although

dx/dt = 3t2 and dy/dt = 6t5 both vanish at t = 0.

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Sketching parametric curves
Sketching a parametric curve x = f (t), y = g(t) (a ≤ t ≤ b) requires
information similar to sketching y = f (x):
From f (t) and g(t):
▶ End points
▶ x-intercepts (y = g(t) = 0), y-intercepts (x = f (t) = 0)
▶ Asymptotic behaviour (whether f (t) or g(t) goes to infinity)
From f ′ (t) and g ′ (t):
▶ whether x and y are increasing/decreasing in t
▶ slopes, horizontal tangents (g ′ (t) = 0), vertical tangents (f ′ (t) = 0)
▶ possibly non-smooth points (where f (t) = g(t) = 0)
From f ′′ (t) and g ′′ (t):
▶ concavity

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To determine the concavity of the curve at (x, y) = (f (t), g(t)), we
calculate
d2 y
 
d dy
=
dx2 dx dx
d g ′ (t)
 
dt
= ′
·
dt f (t) dx
f ′ (t)g ′′ (t) − g ′ (t)f ′′ (t) 1
= ′ 2
· ′
(f (t)) f (t)
′ ′′ ′
f (t)g (t) − g (t)f (t) ′′
= .
(f ′ (t))3

This calculation is valid for any t such that f ′ (t) ̸= 0 (i.e., away from
vertical tangents and singular points).

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Example 9: Use slope and concavity information to sketch the graph of
the parametric curve

x = f (t) = t3 − 3t, y = g(t) = t2 (−2 ≤ t ≤ 2).

Solution:
End points are (−2, 4) for t = −2, (2, 4) for t = 2.
x-intercept: y = g(t) = 0 =⇒ t = 0, (x, y) = (0, 0)
√
y-intercept: x = f (t) = 0 =⇒ t = ± 3, (x, y) = (0, 3) or t = 0,
(x, y) = (0, 0)
Critical points:
dx dy
= f ′ (t) = 3t2 − 3, = g ′ (t) = 2t,
dt dt
Vertical tangents at t = ±1, (x, y) = (∓2, 1),
Horizontal tangent at t = 0, (x, y) = (0, 0).

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Note that
f ′ (t) > 0 means C is traversed from left to right as t increases, and
g ′ (t) > 0 means C is traversed from down to up as t increases.

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Determine concavity:

d2 y f ′ (t)g ′′ (t) − g ′ (t)f ′′ (t)

=
dx2 (f ′ (t))3
2(3t2 − 3) − 6t · 2t 6(t2 + 1)
= = − .
(3t2 − 3)3 27(t2 − 1)3

Since the numerator does not change signs, the curve is concave up for
−1 < t < 1, and concave down otherwise.

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§8.4 Arc Lengths and Areas for Parametric Curves
For the parametric curve

x = f (t), y = g(t) (a ≤ t ≤ b),

the arc length element ds is given by

r 
ds dx 2  dy 2
ds = dt = + dt.
dt dt dt
Therefore, the arc length of the curve from t = a to t = b is
Z t=b Z bp
s= ds = (f ′ (t))2 + (g ′ (t))2 dt.
t=a a

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Example 10: Find the length of the parametric curve

x = 2a cos2 t, y = 2a sin t cos t (−π/2 ≤ t ≤ π/2),

where a > 0.
Solution: we have
dx
= −4a sin t cos t = −2a sin 2t,
dt
dy
= 2a cos2 t − 2a sin2 t = 2a cos 2t.
dt
Therefore,
Z π/2 p Z π/2
2 2 2 2
S= 4a sin 2t + 4a cos 2t dt = 2a dt = 2πa.
−π/2 −π/2

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Areas Bounded by Parametric Curves
Let x = f (t), y = g(t). If
f ′ (t) > 0 (C is traversed from left to right as t increases),
g(t) ≥ 0 (C has no points below the x-axis),
then the area A under the curve is
Z t=b Z b
A= y dx = g(t)f ′ (t) dt.
t=a a

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For the other cases, adjust the sign accordingly.

x y Area between curve and x-axis

Z b
f ′ (t) > 0 g(t) ≥ 0 A= g(t)f ′ (t) dt
a
Z b
f ′ (t) > 0 g(t) ≤ 0 A=− g(t)f ′ (t) dt
a
Z b
f ′ (t) < 0 g(t) ≥ 0 A=− g(t)f ′ (t) dt
Z ba

f ′ (t) < 0 g(t) ≤ 0 A= g(t)f ′ (t) dt

a

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Example 11: Find the area enclosed by the astroid

x = a cos3 t, y = a sin3 t (0 ≤ t ≤ 2π),

where a > 0.

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Solution: It suffices to calculate the area in the first quadrant (i.e., for
0 ≤ t ≤ π/2 and multiply the answer by 4. Since f ′ (t) ≤ 0 over this
range, we have
Z π/2
Area = −4 g(t)f ′ (t) dt
0
Z π/2
2
= −4a (sin3 t)(−3 cos2 t sin t) dt
0
π/2
3πa2
Z
= 12a2 sin4 t cos2 t dt = .
0 8

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Closed curves
A closed parametric curve is one where the starting and ending points
are the same.

The area of the region enclosed by closed parametric curve depends on

whether the curve is traversed clockwise or counter-clockwise.

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Example 12: Find the area bounded by the ellipse

x = f (t) = a cos t, y = g(t) = b sin t (0 ≤ t ≤ 2π),

with a, b > 0.
Solution: The ellipse is traversed counterclockwise, so
Z 2π
Area = − g(t)f ′ (t) dt
0
Z 2π
= −ab (− sin2 t) dt
0
ab 2π
Z
= (1 − cos 2t) dt
2 0
ab  1  2π
= t − sin 2t = πab.
2 2 0

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§8.5 Polar Coordinates and Polar Curves

The polar coordinate system is an alternative to the rectangular

(Cartesian) coordinates for describing points on a plane.
The position of any point P is denoted by [r, θ], where
▶ r is the distance from the origin O to P ,

▶ θ is the angle OP makes with the positive x-axis.

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Conversion formula
x = r cos θ r 2 = x2 + y 2
y = r sin θ tan θ = y/x

Caution: (x, y) and (−x, −y) give the same value of tan θ, but not the
same θ!
Convention: Let r > 0, (−r, θ) means go in the direction opposite to θ,
i.e., go r units in the direction of θ + π. Thus, (−r, θ) represents the same
point as (r, θ + π).

E.g. (−1, π/4) = (1, 5π/4).

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Polar Curves

A curve written in x and y can be converted to a polar curve using the

conversion formula.

Examples 13:
The straight line 2x − 3y = 5 has the polar equation

2r cos θ − 3r sin θ = 5

5
or r= .
2 cos θ − 3 sin θ

The circle of radius a > 0 centered at the origin is represented by

polar equation
r = a.

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Example 14: Find the Cartesian equation of the curve represented by the
polar equation r = 2a cos θ, with a > 0.

Solution:
Multiply both sides by r and get

r2 = 2ar cos θ.

Since r2 = x2 + y 2 and r cos θ = x, we get

x2 + y 2 = 2ax =⇒ (x − a)2 + y 2 = a2 .

Thus, this is a circle of radius a, centered at

the point (a, 0).

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Example 15: Find the Cartesian equation of the curve represented by the
polar equation r = 2a cos(θ − θ0 ), with a > 0, θ0 = const.

Solution: We can mimic the previous calcula-

tion to get

(x − a cos θ0 )2 + (y − a sin θ0 )2 = a2 .

This is a circle of radius a with centre having

Cartesian coordinates (a cos θ0 , a sin θ0 ) and
hence polar coordinates (a, θ0 ). This corre-
sponds to rotating the curve in example 14
counterclockwise by θ0 .

The polar graph with equation r = f (θ − θ0 ) is the polar graph with

equation r = f (θ) rotated through angle θ0 about the origin.

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Example 16: Sketch the polar curve r = a(1 − cos θ), with a > 0.
Solution: Converting to rectangular coordinates gives

(x2 + y 2 + ax)2 = a2 (x2 + y 2 ),

which we do not recognize. Making a table of values and plotting some

points, we obtain a heart-shaped curve called the cardioid.

When sketching polar curves, make sure to show any directions of

approach to the origin. Observe the cusp at the origin. The curve enters
the origin in the directions θ = 0.

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More polar curves

Example 17: Sketch the polar graphs

(a) r = cos(2θ), (b) r = sin(3θ), (c) r2 = cos(2θ).

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More polar curves
Example 18: The polar graphs
(a) r = θ, (b) r = e−θ/3
are not closed curves, because f and g are not periodic with a period
divisible by 2π. Their graphs for positive θ are shown below.

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Intersection of polar curves
If f and g are 2π-periodic, then the curves r = f (θ) and r = g(θ)
intersect at
any θ0 for which f (θ0 ) = g(θ0 ),

possibly the origin.

Remarks:
Since there are many ways to write the polar function, the
intersection points may not be given by f (θ) = g(θ).

We only consider the case that r is positive.

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Example 19: Find the intersections of the curves

r = sin θ and r = cos θ.

Solution: Find θ such that sin θ = cos θ ⇒ θ = π4 .

√
So these two circles intersect at (1/ 2, π/4) and the origin even though
sin θ = cos θ only gives the one point.
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Example 20: Find the intersections of the curves

r = sin θ and r = 1 − sin θ.

Solution: Find θ such that

sin θ = 1 − sin θ
1
=⇒ sin θ =
2
π 5π
=⇒ θ= or .
6 6
We therefore have [1/2, π/6] and [1/2, 5π/6] as intersections. Since both
curves pass through the origin, the point (0, 0) is also an intersection.

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§8.6 Slopes, Areas and Arc Lengths for Polar Curves

Slopes
To find a tangent line to a polar curve r = f (θ), we regard θ as a
parameter and write its parametric equations as

x = r cos θ = f (θ) cos θ y = r sin θ = f (θ) sin θ

Then, we have
dy dr
dy dθ dθ sin θ + r cos θ
= dx
= dr
.
dx dθ dθ cos θ − r sin θ
Cases:
dy dx
Horizontal tangents: = 0, ̸= 0
dθ dθ
dx dy
Vertical tangents: = 0, ̸= 0
dθ dθ
dy dr
Tangents at pole (origin), i.e., r = 0: = tan θ if ̸= 0
dx dθ
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Example 21: Find the points on the cardioid r = 1 + cos θ where the
tangent lines are vertical or horizontal.
Solution: Rewriting the polar curve as a parametric curve, we get

x = (1 + cos θ) cos θ,
y = (1 + cos θ) sin θ.

We find values of θ such that dx/dθ = 0 or dy/dθ = 0:

dx
= − sin θ − 2 sin θ cos θ = 0
dθ
− sin θ(1 + 2 cos θ) = 0 =⇒ θ ∈ {0, ±2π/3, π}.
dy
= cos θ + cos2 θ − sin2 θ = 0
dθ
(2 cos θ − 1)(cos θ + 1) = 0 =⇒ θ ∈ {±π/3, π}.

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 dx
= 0 =⇒ θ ∈ {0, ±2π/3, π}.
dθ
dy
= 0 =⇒ θ ∈ {±π/3, π}.
dθ
Cases:
dy dx
Horizontal tangents: = 0, ̸= 0 ⇒ θ = ±π/3.
dθ dθ
dx dy
Vertical tangents: = 0, ̸= 0 ⇒ θ = 0, ±2π/3.
dθ dθ
dr
When θ = π, i.e., the pole (origin), we have = − sin θ = 0. So
dθ
there is no tangent line at that point.

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Areas
For the polar curve r = f (θ), a suitable area element is a sector with
angular width dθ.
dθ 2 1 2 1
dA = πr = r dθ = (f (θ))2 dθ.
2π 2 2

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If the region is bounded by the rays θ = α and θ = β (α < β), then
integrating gives
Z β
1
Area = (f (θ))2 dθ.
2 α

Example 22: Find the area bounded by the cardioid r = a(1 + cos θ).

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Solution: It suffices to double the area above the x-axis, so

1 π 2
Z
A=2× a (1 + cos θ)2 dθ
2 0
Z π
2
=a (1 + 2 cos θ + cos2 θ) dθ
0
Z π 
3 1
= a2 + 2 cos θ + cos(2θ) dθ
0 2 2
π
3πa2

2 3 1
=a θ + 2 sin θ + sin(2θ) = sq. units.
2 4 0 2

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Example 23: Find the area of the region that lies inside the circle
√
r = 2 sin θ and inside the lemniscate r2 = sin 2θ.

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Solution: The curves intersect at in the first quadrant at the point
satisfying
2 sin2 θ = r2 = sin 2θ
sin θ = cos θ =⇒ θ = π/4.
Therefore,
1
Z π/4 √ 1 π/2
Z
A= ( 2 sin θ)2 dθ + sin 2θ dθ
2 0 2 π/4
Z π/4 π/2
1 1
= (1 − cos 2θ) dθ − cos 2θ
2 0 4 π/4
  π/4
θ 1 1 π
= − sin 2θ + = sq. units.
2 4 0 4 8

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Arc lengths
The arc length element for the polar curve r = f (θ) can be determined
from the differential triangle shown below.
h dr 2 i
(ds)2 = (dr)2 + (r dθ)2 = + r2 (dθ)2 .
dθ

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Therefore, the arc length for r = f (θ) between the rays θ = α and θ = β
is given by
Z β p
s= (f ′ (θ))2 + (f (θ))2 dθ.
α

Example 24: Find the total length of the cardioid r = a(1 + cos θ).

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Solution: The total length is twice the length of the arc from θ = 0 to
θ = π. Since dr/dθ = −a sin θ, we have
Z πq
s=2 a2 sin2 θ + a2 (1 + cos θ)2 dθ
Z0 π p
=2 2a2 + 2a2 cos θ dθ
0
Z πp
=2 4a2 cos2 (θ/2) dθ
0
Z π
= 4a cos(θ/2) dθ
0
π
= 8a sin(θ/2) = 8a units.
0

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