Fahim

1. State and Explain Sampling Theorem (2)

A continuous signal can be fully recovered from its samples if sampling frequency (Fs) is
greater or equal than twice the maximum frequency (fmax).

Explanation:
If the highest frequency of a signal is f max, then the minimum sampling rate fs must be:

fs≥2fmax

Minimum sampling rate is called the Nyquist rate. Sampling below this rate leads to
aliasing, where different signals become indistinguishable.

2. What is aliasing effect? (2marks)

Aliasing is a distortion that occurs if sampling frequency (Fs) is less than twice the
maximum frequency

As a result, different signals become indistinguishable from each other.

Explanation:
When sampling rate is less than Nyquist rate (fs <2fmax), maximum-frequency appear as
lower frequencies in the sampled signal, causing errors in reconstruction

3. Explain how PCM Signal are achieved

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is a method used to digitally represent analog signals. It
involves three main stages:
1. Sampling

• The continuous-time analog signal is measured at uniform time intervals.

• These measurements are called samples.
• The sampling rate must be at least twice the maximum frequency in the signal
(Nyquist rate) to avoid aliasing.

2. Quantization

• Each sampled value is approximated to the nearest value within a finite set of
levels.
• This process introduces quantization error, but it allows digital representation.
• The more quantization levels used, the more accurate the representation.

3. Encoding

• Each quantized level is assigned a unique binary code.

• This converts the analog signal into a stream of binary digits (0s and 1s), which can
be stored or transmitted digitally.

Final PCM Signal

The result is a series of binary numbers that represent the original analog waveform in
digital form. This PCM signal can now be transmitted over digital communication systems
or stored for later use.

4. What are the steps of Analog to Digital Signal Conversion process? (2marks)
5. Draw the Block Diagram of (Delta Modulation) DM Transmitter (2)

6. Compare TDMA, FDMA and CDMA. (3marks)

Feature FDMA TDMA CDMA

Principle Each user gets a Each user gets a All users talk at the
different frequency different time slot same time and
band to talk frequency, but with
different codes
Bandwidth Use Shared in frequency Shared in time Shared using codes

Interference Possible adjacent Low (if Low, but needs

channel interference synchronized) complex processing
Sync Less important Required Not strictly needed
Efficiency low Moderate High
Complexity Low Moderate High
Used in 1G Used in 2G Used in 3G

FDM (Frequency
Feature TDM (Time Division) CDM (Code Division)
Division)

Uses Frequency
Sharing Uses Time slots Uses different codes
bands

Sync No sync needed Needs sync Code sync only

Small delay (waiting for

Delay No delay Minimal delay
turn)

Signal
Analog to digital Digital Digital
Type

Mobile Communication
Use cases Radio, TV Phone
(3G/4G)

Simple, no timing
Pros Good for digital Secure, less noise
needs

Cons Needs bandwidth Needs timing Complex setup

12. Compare PAM, PDM and PPM

 PAM (Pulse
PDM (Pulse Duration PPM (Pulse Position
Feature Amplitude
Modulation) Modulation)
Modulation)

What PAM changes Width (Duration) of

Position of pulses
changes? Amplitude of pulses pulses

Noise Low (affected by

Medium High (timing-based)
Immunity noise)

Power Low (constant pulse

Medium High (short pulses)
Efficiency width)

Bandwidth Low Medium High

Complexity Simple Moderate Complex (needs sync)

Application Early digital comms Audio, PWM in motors Optical comms

 9. Name 3mechanisms for the modulation of digital data into analog signal. Show the
difference among them. (5)

Three Mechanisms of Digital-to-Analog Modulation:

1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

2. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
3. Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Feature ASK (Amplitude FSK (Frequency Shift PSK (Phase Shift

Shift Keying) Keying) Keying)
1 Modulated Amplitude Frequency Phase
Parameter
2 Binary ‘1’ High amplitude Higher frequency (f1) Phase shift (e.g., 0°)
Representation
3 Binary ‘0’ Low or zero Lower frequency (f0) Phase shift (e.g.,
Representation amplitude 180°)
4 Noise Sensitivity High (easily Medium Less
affected)
5 Noise Immunity Low Medimum High
6 Bandwidth Low High Medium
Requirement
7 Bandwidth Low Medium High
Efficiency
8 Complexity Simplest Moderate Slightly complex
9 Applications Optical Early Modems Satellites
Communications Communications

77. Modulation is the process of changing amplitude, frequency or phase of carrier signal
in accordance with amplitude of message signal.
8. Define Companding and Information Rate (2)

Companding is a combination of Compressing and Expanding, which means that

Companding does both. Companding is a non-linear technique used in PCM, which
compress the data at Transmitter and expand same data at Receiver. Companding
improve SNR of weak signal.

Information Rate, R is the amount of information transmitted per second.

R=bit/sec

Information Theory is measured in terms of amount of uncertainty in message.

Information Theory is proportional to uncertainty in message.

Information Entropy measures the uncertainty in message.

7. Explain Slope Overload and Granular Noise of Delta Modulation (3)
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Amplitude of carrier signal varies with w.r.t. amplitude of message signal (digital).

Used to convert digital data into analog data.

• Representation:
 o Binary 1 → High amplitude

o Binary 0 → Low (or zero) amplitude

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Frequency of carrier signal varies w.r.t. amplitude of message signal.

Used to convert digital data into analog data.

• Representation:

o Binary 1 → One frequency (e.g., f1)

o Binary 0 → Another frequency (e.g., f2)

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Phase of carrier signal varies w.r.t. amplitude of message signal.

Representation:

• Binary 0 → Phase shift of 0∘

• Binary 1 → Phase shift of 180∘ (for BPSK)

10. An audio signal is sampled at 8K Hz rate using a 32 level quantizer. Find:

i. Peak signal power to Peak quantization noise power. ii. System Bandwidth

(SQNR=Signal to Quantization noise Ratio)

Soln:

Given:

• Sampling rate (fₛ) = 8 kHz

• Quantizer levels (M) = 32

Number of bits/sample = L

L= log 2 M

L= log 2 32

L= 5

Formula for SQNR:

SQNR=6.02L+1.76 dB

SQNR=6.02×5+1.76 dB

SQNR=31.86 dB (Answer)

(ii) Bit rate, Rb = fs * L

=8,000 * 5

=40,000

System Bandwidth, B = Rb/2

=40,000/2

=20,000 (Answer)
11.

Soln:

(i)

Maximum allowable time interval between samples

Ts=0.002857s

Ts=2.857ms (Answer)

(ii)

fs=350Hz

(Answer)
12. Shannon’s Theorem: A given communication system has a maximum rate of
information C known as Channel Capacity.

14. SNR should keep as high as possible, whereas Noise figure should be kept small. Why?
(4 Marks)

• High SNR means signal is stronger.

• Small Noise Figure means receiver adds small extra noise, preserving original signal
quality.
• Increasing Transmit Power improves SNR but not cost-efficient.
Reducing Noise figure improves SNR and it is cost-efficient.

15. Signal Power 2MW, Noise Power 1.95MW. Find the maximum data rate and Shannon's
capacity.
16. QPSK (Quadratic Phase Shift keying)

QPSK is a form of PSK in which 2bits of digital information is transmitted at a time.