EEE 3201 Power System I

Lectures for B.Sc. Students

Semester: L/T - 3/2

Md. Minarul Islam, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
University of Dhaka
Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh
 Lecture:
Basic Protection System

November 5, 2023 M. M. Islam PSOC 2

 Basic Power System Protection

❑ The problems related to transmission lines are:

❖ Lightning surges and

❖ Switching transients

❑ Failure of apparatus due to those problems or other causes leads to

fault in system.

❑ We have tools to analyse balanced and unbalanced system.

❑ The utmost importance is to remove faults from system as soon as

possible.

❑ The equipment that does this job is called protection system.

 Basic Power System Protection

❑ However, If the short circuit fault persists on a power system for an extended
period, the following problems may occur:

1. Damage to the equipment that is in the vicinity of the fault due to heavy
currents, unbalanced currents, or low voltages produced by the short circuit.

2. Explosions which may occur in equipment containing insulating oil during a

short circuit and which may cause fire resulting in a serious hazard to
personnel and damage to other equipment.

3. Reduced stability margins for the power system.

4. Disruptions in the entire power system service area by a succession of

protective actions taken by different protection systems-ac occurrence
known as cascading.
Fault Detection, Circuit interruption and protection
❖ Monitoring system monitors
the system parameters.

❖ If any parameter goes

beyond its allowed limit, the
monitoring system detect it
as fault, and generate
alarms.

❖ If the measured parameter is

abnormal and long lasting,
the faulty part is isolated
from the system, and protect
the rest of the system.

❖ This monitoring, fault

detection, and circuit
interruption system is
defined as protection
system.

❖ The protection system is

composed of measuring
instruments, relay and circuit
breaker (CB).
Terminologies and general characteristics of relays and
breakers
❑ A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of
the circuit breaker to isolate the defective element from the rest of the system.
Terminologies and general characteristics of relays and
breakers
Protective Relays
❑ Protective relay is a smart device which protects electrical equipment like
motors, transformers, transmission lines, generators, bus-bars, etc.

❑ They receive input from sensors and compare with the Set Value (Trip Value)
then provide output and isolate electrical equipment from the system.
Attributes of Protective Relays
❑ The principal function of protective relaying is to cause the
prompt removal from service of any element of the power system
when it starts to operate in an abnormal manner or interfere with
the effective operation of the rest of the system.

❑ In order that protective relay system may perform this function

satisfactorily, it should have the following qualities:

❑ Fast
❑ Reliable
❑ Selective
❑ Simple
❑ Cheap
 Zone of Protection
❑ Consider the figure below. The closed dashed lines indicate the five zones of protection
in which this power system is divided.
❑ Each zone contains one or more power system components in addition to two CBs.
❑ Each CB is included in two neighbouring zones of protection.
❑ The boundary of each zone defines a portion of the power system such that for a fault
anywhere withing that zone the protection system responsible for that zone takes active
to isolate everything within that zone from the rest of the system.
 Zone of Protection
❑ The CBs help define the boundaries of the zone of protection.
❑ The neighbouring zones always overlap. This overlap is necessary, since without it a
small part of the system which falls between the neighbouring zones, however small it
may be, would be left without protection. By overlapping neighbouring zones, no part
of the power system is left without protection.
❑ Reach: Area of responsibility of the protection system is known as reach.
Measuring Equipment--Transducers
 Transducers

❑ Consider a transmission line having kV and kA levels.

❑ The relays protection for the transmission line operate at low levels of kV and kA.
❑ Transducers reduce kV and kA level to low level for relay operation.
❑ Two importance of reduced level relay operation

1. Less expensive of relay

2. Safe environment for the personnel working with the relays.

Two transducers:
1. Current transformer (CT)
2. Potential transformer (PT)
Burden on Transducer
❑ The load on CTs and PTs are commonly known as their burden. The term burden
usually means the impedance connected to the transformer secondary winding.
For example, a transformer delivering 5 A to a resistive burden of 0.1 Ohm may also
be said to have a burden of 2.5 voltampere at 5 Ampere.
Current transformer (CT)
Current transformer (CT)
❑ Consider Fig. 1.3 which represent a schematic of a CT.
❑ The primary winding of a CT usually consists of a single turn, in Fig. 1.3, by a
straight line marked a & b.
❑ This single turn is obtained by threading the primary conductor through one or
more toroidal steel core. See working principle.

❑ The secondary windings, the terminals 𝑎′ &

𝑏′ , are multiple-turn windings wound on
the toroidal core.
❑ The dots placed at the terminals a & 𝑎′ of Fig. 1.3 Schematic representation
the CT windings indicate---when primary to show connection of a CT to the
current enters terminal a the current line of a power system.
leaving the dotted terminal 𝑎′ of the
secondary winding is in phase with the
primary current if magnetizing current is
neglected.
 Current transformer (CT)
❑ The normal current rating of CT secondaries has been standardized at 5A, with
a second standard of 1 A being used in Europe, to a lesser extent in the USA.
❑ For short period of time this rating of the CT secondary windings can be
exceeded without damaging the windings.
❑ Currents of more than 10 or 20 times normal are often encountered in CT
windings during short-circuit on the power system.
❑ Standard CT current ratios have been established in Table below
Potential Transformer (PT)
 Potential Transformer (PT)

❑ Two type of voltage transformer are commonly found in relaying applications.

Low-voltage application (system voltage around 12 kV or lower)

Transformer
—primary winding at the system voltage

--secondary winding at 67 V (L-N) or 3 × 67 =

116 𝑉 (L-L) (Industry standard)
Potential Transformer (PT)

HV and EHV application

❑ Here a capacitance potential-divider circuit is used as shown in Fig. 1.4.
❑ Capacitors C1 and C2 are adjusted so that a voltage of a few kV is obtained
across C2 wen terminal A is at the system potential.

❑ In such a coupling-capacitor voltage

transformer (CVT) the tapped voltage is
further reduced to relaying voltage level by
a transformer (T), as shown in Fig. 1.4.

❑ The Thevenin impedance looking toward

the system across the terminals of C2 is
1
.
𝜔(𝐶1 +𝐶2 )

Fig. 1.4 Circuit diagram of a capacitor-

coupled voltage transformer CVT with
its tuning inductance L.
Potential Transformer (PT)

HV and EHV application

❑ Adjusting L so that wL equals the Thevenin

impedance results in series resonance, and
the output of CVT is in phase with the line
potential with no phase-angle error
introduced in the CVT output.

❑ The CVT is a free-standing device housed in

its own supporting insulator structure and
finds application in HV and EHV systems.

Fig. 1.4 Circuit diagram of a capacitor-

coupled voltage transformer CVT with
its tuning inductance L.
Logical Design of Relays
Logical Design of Relays
❑ The job of a relay is to discriminate between a fault within its zone of
protection and all other system conditions.
❑ It must act (energize the trip coil of its associated circuit breakers) dependably
for faults with its zones of protection and provide security against false
tripping for faults outside those zones.
❑ Generally, five classes of relays

1. Magnitude relays

2. Directional relays

3. Ratio relays→ distance or

impedance relay

4. Differential relays

5. Pilot relays.
Ratio relays (Distance or Impedance Relay)

❑ Consider the relay R12 in Fig. 1.5.

❑ In some applications, it is necessary that the relay operates for faults within a
certain distance of its location on any of the lines originating at bus 1.
❑ The vicinity is described by the distance along the lines, or equivalently by the
impedance between bus 1 and the fault location.

❑ The zone of protection is thus a region such

that the length of a line originating at bus 1
and having an impedance less than the
required setting |Zr| is included in the
zone.
❑ Let the ratio of voltage and current at the
location of R12 is
𝑉1
𝑍=
𝐼12
Fig. 1.5 Impedance relay characteristics
showing (a) zone of protection for R12
 Ratio relays (Distance or Impedance Relay)

The relay performance can then be specified by

|Z| <|Zr|→Trip
|Z|>|Zr|→Block
And the relay is called an impedance or distance
relay.

❑ In the complex impedance plane, the locus

of constant |Zr| is a circle, as shown in Fig.
1.5 (b).

Fig. 1.5 Impedance relay characteristics

showing (a) zone of protection for R12,
(b) complex plane
Ratio relays (Distance or Impedance Relay)

❑ During normal system conditions Z will be a complex number with some

arbitrary phase angle determined by the load power factor.

❑ As 𝐼𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 ≪ 𝐼𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 , 𝑍𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 ≫ 𝑍𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 ,

❑ So, Z plotted in the complex plane under normal system conditions will lie
outside the circle of radius |Zr| and consequently the CB will not trip.
❑ Under fault conditions, Z will be inside the circle of |Zr|, the CB will trip.
 Differential Relays:
❑ Consider the zone of protection of one phase of a generator winding in Fig. 1.6.
❑ Two current transformers having the same turns ratios are placed at the boundaries
of the zone of protection (two for each phase of a three-phase unit).

❑ Then for normal conditions, as well as for

faults outside the zone of protection

𝐼1 − 𝐼2 = 0

❑ Whereas for a fault inside the protected zone

𝐼1 − 𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑓

𝐼𝑓 is the fault current as seen from the

secondary side of CTs.

Fig. 1.6 Wiring diagram for differential

protection of a generator winding.
 Differential Relays:
❑ It should be realized that due to the errors of the current transformers, these
equations will not exactly hold in practice.

To account for these inaccuracies, a low

value of current |𝐼𝑝 | may be chosen such
that
𝐼1 − 𝐼2 < |𝐼𝑝 |
for normal system conditions or for faults
external to the zone of protection; and
𝐼1 − 𝐼2 > |𝐼𝑝 |
For internal faults. The operating logic of
the relay can therefore be defined by

𝐼1 − 𝐼2 > |𝐼𝑝 |→Trip

𝐼1 − 𝐼2 < |𝐼𝑝 |→Block Fig. 1.6 Wiring diagram for differential
protection of a generator winding.
➢ Introduction to Circuit Breakers (CB)
 Introduction to Circuit Breakers (CB)
❑ During the operation of power system, it is often desirable and necessary to
switch on or off the various circuits (e.g., transmission lines, distributors,
generating plants etc.) under both normal and abnormal conditions. This job is
performed through operation of a Circuit Breaker (CB)

Circuit Breakers (CB)

SF6 CB
 Introduction to Circuit Breakers (CB)

Circuit Breakers (CB)

✓ make or break a circuit either manually or by remote control under

normal conditions

✓ break a circuit automatically under fault conditions

✓ make a circuit either manually or by remote control under fault conditions

❖ Thus, a circuit breaker incorporates manual (or remote control) as well as

automatic control for switching functions.

❖ The automatic control employs relays and operates only under fault conditions.
 Introduction to Circuit Breakers (CB)
Operating Principle of CB

❑ A circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts, called

electrodes.

❑ Under normal operating conditions, these contacts remain closed and will not
open automatically until and unless the system becomes faulty. Of course, the
contacts can be opened manually or by remote control whenever desired.

❑ When a fault occurs on any part of the system, the trip coils of the circuit
breaker get energized and the moving contacts are pulled apart by some
mechanism, thus opening the circuit.
 Introduction to Circuit Breakers (CB)
Operating Principle of CB

❑ When the contacts of a circuit breaker are separated under fault conditions, an
arc is struck between them. The current is thus able to continue until the
discharge ceases.

❑ The production of arc not only delays the current interruption process, but it
also generates enormous heat which may cause damage to the system or to the
circuit breaker itself.

❑ Therefore, the main problem in a circuit breaker is to extinguish the arc within
the shortest possible time so that heat generated by it may not reach a
dangerous value.
 Introduction to Circuit Breakers (CB)
Classification of CB

Based on medium used for arc extinction, CBs are classified as:

1. Oil circuit breakers which employ some insulating oil (e.g., transformer
oil) for arc extinction.

2. Air-blast circuit breakers in which high pressure air-blast (produce high

sound) is used for extinguishing the arc.

3. Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) circuit breakers in which sulphur

hexafluoride (SF6) gas is used for arc extinction.

4. Vacuum circuit breakers in which vacuum is used for arc extinction.

 Introduction to Circuit Breakers (CB)
Ratings of CBs
❑ A circuit breaker may be called upon to operate under all conditions. However,
major duties are imposed on the circuit breaker when there is a fault on the system
in which it is connected.
❑ Under fault conditions, a circuit breaker is required to perform the following three
duties :
✓ It must be capable of opening the faulty circuit and breaking the fault
current.

✓ It must be capable of being closed on to a fault.

✓ It must be capable of carrying fault current for a short time while

another circuit breaker (in series) is clearing the fault.
❑ Corresponding to the above mentioned duties, the circuit breakers have three
ratings:
1. breaking capacity
2. making capacity and
3. short-time capacity.
 Introduction to Circuit Breakers (CB)
Ratings of CBs breaking capacity
❑ It is current (r.m.s.) that a circuit breaker is capable of breaking at given recovery
voltage and under specified conditions.
❑ The breaking capacity is always stated at the r.m.s. value of fault current at the
instant of contact separation.

❑ When a fault occurs, there is considerable asymmetry in the fault current due to the
presence of a d.c. component.
❑ The d.c. component dies away rapidly, a typical decrement factor being 0·8 per cycle.

❑ Referring to Fig. 19.24, the contacts are

separated at DD´.

❑ At this instant, the fault current has

x = maximum value of a.c. component
y = d.c. component
 Introduction to Circuit Breakers (CB)
Ratings of CBs breaking capacity

❖ It is a common practice to express the breaking capacity in MVA by taking into

account the rated breaking current and rated service voltage.

❖ Thus, if I is the rated breaking current in amperes and V is the rated service line
voltage in volts, then for a 3-phase circuit,
 Introduction to Circuit Breakers (CB)
Ratings of CBs Making capacity

❑ The peak value of current (including d.c. component) during the first cycle of
current wave after the closure of circuit breaker is known as making capacity

❑ It may be noted that the definition is concerned with the first cycle of current
wave on closing the circuit breaker. This is because the maximum value of fault
current possibly occurs in the first cycle only when maximum asymmetry occurs
in any phase of the breaker.

Making capacity =2·55 × Symmetrical breaking capacity

Short-time rating
❑ It is the period for which the circuit breaker is able to carry fault current while
remaining closed,
❑ This delay is because of time of operation of protection relays, time of
operation of circuit breaker and also there may be some intentional time
delay imposed in relay for proper coordination of power system protection.
Even a circuit breaker fails to trip, the fault will be cleared by next higher
positioned circuit breaker.
 Introduction to Circuit Breakers (CB)
Short-time rating

❑ The short-time rating of a circuit breaker depends upon its ability to withstand

❑ the electromagnetic force effects and

❑ the temperature rise.

❑ The oil circuit breakers have a specified limit of 3 seconds when the ratio of
symmetrical breaking current to the rated normal current does not exceed 40.
However, if this ratio is more than 40, then the specified limit is 1 second.

Normal current rating.

❑ It is the r.m.s. value of current which the circuit breaker is capable of

carrying continuously at its rated frequency under specified conditions. The
only limitation in this case is the temperature rise of current-carrying parts.
End of the Class
2nd Semester
3 July to 5 November 2023
Wish You
a clean
route
EEE 3201