Unit 5

Basics of electronics
Introduction

Electronic devices influence our daily lives in such a way that it is almost
impossible to spend even a few hours without them. Calculators, digital watches,
mobile phones, televisions, and computers are just some of the electronic
devices that we use every day. Why have we become so dependent on
electronics? The answer is very simple. They simplify our activities and lifestyle.
Electronics plays an important role in the aerospace industry and automobile
industries. Electronic devices are also necessary in medicine. For example,
equipment such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography
(CT) and X-rays rely on electronics in order to do their work quickly and

Brainstorming accurately.
question 5.1
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
Observe the figure
• Appreciate the characteristics of the P-N junction diode and its
above. It shows an
electronic circuit applications in electronics.
board used in
• Understand the characteristics of the bipolar transistor and its application
electronic devices.
in electronics.
List some of the
basic electronic
• Appreciate the use of digital electronics in electronic switching and
components that
integrate circuits.
are used for building
electronic circuits. • Understand the application areas of electronics.

142
5.1 Semiconductors 143

5.1 Semiconductors
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe the difference between conductor, insulator and semiconductor.

• Give example of semiconductor elements.

• Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

Brainstorming
• Distingush betwee N- type and P-type semiconductors. question 5.2

Why are metals

• Explain how doping supports current flow in a semiconductor material.
good conductor
and insulators
Conductors are materials which allow electricity to flow through them. Metals
poor conductor of
are good conductors of electricity. Conductors have free electrons that allow the
electricity? What
easy flow of electric current. do you know about
Some materials do not allow electricity to pass through them. These materials semiconductor
are known as insulators. Insulators do not have free electrons every electron in materials?
them is tightly bound to the parent atom. Plastic, wood, glass and rubber are
good electrical insulators. That is why they are used to cover materials that carry
electricity.
Semiconductors are materials which have a conductivity between conductors
and insulators. Semiconductors can be pure elements, such as silicon or
germanium, or compounds such as gallium arsenide or cadmium selenide.
Semiconductors act as insulators at absolute zero temperature (zero kelvin) and
conductors at higher temperatures. Conduction occurs at higher temperature
because the electrons surrounding the semiconductor atoms can break away
from their covalent bond and move freely within the material in order to conduct.
In a process called doping, small amounts of impurities are added to pure
semiconductors causing large changes in the conductivity of the material.

Lattice structure of semiconductors

Semiconductors, such as silicon (Si) are made up of individual atoms bonded

together in a regular and periodic structure to form an arrangement whereby
each atom is surrounded by eight electrons. An individual atom consists of a
nucleus made up of a core of protons (positively charged particles) and neutrons
(particles having no charge) surrounded by electrons (Figure 5.1a). The number
of electrons and protons is equal, such that the atom is overall electrically neutral.
The electrons in the outer most shell of each atom in a semiconductor are part
144 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

of a covalent bond. A covalent bond consists of two atoms sharing a pair of

electrons. Each atom forms four covalent bonds with the four surrounding atoms
(Figure ??b). Therefore, between each atom and its four surrounding atoms, eight
electrons are being shared.

Figure 5.1 a) Electron structure of silicon atom b) covalent bond in silicon.

Hole in a semiconductor means the absence of electron in an atom (Figure 5.2).
Hole behaves like a positive charge. In magnitude they are equal to electron but
opposite sign. Holes and electrons are two types of charge carriers responsible
for current in semiconductor materials.

Types of Semiconductors
Figure 5.2 Free electron and hole
in semiconductor. Semiconductors are divided into two categories: Intrinsic semiconductor and
extrinsic semiconductor.

Intrinsic semiconductors: are composed of only one kind of material; silicon

and germanium are two examples. They are semiconductor materials which has
not had impurities added to them in order to change the carrier concentrations.
These are also called undoped semiconductors.

Extrinsic semiconductors: have impurities added to their lattice structure. The

addition of small amounts of selected impurities to a pure semiconductor
considerably improves its conductivity. The process of adding impurity to a pure
semiconductor crystal to improve its conductivity is called doping. Sometimes
the impurity is called a dopant.
5.1 Semiconductors 145

The main aim of doping is to make sure that there are either too many electrons
(surplus) or too few electrons (deficiency). Depending on what situation you
want to create, you use different elements for the doping. In semiconductor
production, doping intentionally introduces impurities into the intrinsic (or
pure) semiconductor for the purpose of changing its electrical properties. Lightly
or moderately doped semiconductors are called extrinsic semiconductor. The
extrinsic semiconductors are further classified as N-type and P-type
semiconductors, based on the type of atomic impurity added to the
semiconductors.

N-type semiconductor: an extra electron is created by adding an element that

has more electrons in the outer shell of the atom (called valence electrons) than
the intrinsic semiconductor. These elements usually come from Group V in the
periodic table. Elements from Group V have five valence electrons one more than
the Group IV elements. Group V elements that serve as impurities include
antimony, arsenic, bismuth, and phosphorus. Adding these impurities causes
conduction mainly by means of electron flow. The excess electrons are passed
from atom to atom when a voltage exists across the material. The electron carries Discussion
a negative charge, so the material is called an N-type semiconductor and question 5.1:
conduction is due to a large number of electrons. Since N-type dopants donate
1. What are the
their free electrons to the semiconductor, they are known as donor atoms. current carriers in
semiconductors and
For example, Figure 5.3a shows a silicon (Si) crystal doped with arsenic(As) . conductors?
When As is added to a Si crystal, the four electrons in As bond with the four Si 2. A germanium
(Ge) crystal is
electrons. The fifth As valence electron is free to move around for conduction. It
doped with boron.
takes only a few As atoms to create enough free electrons to allow an electric
What type of
current to flow through the silicon.
semiconductor
is this?
P-type semiconductor: when Group III element such as aluminum, boron, 3. Would the
gallium, or indium is added to a pure semiconductor. The added impurity atoms following elements
establish covalent bonds with the neighboring atoms. For example, boron (B) has make good P-type
dopants or good
three electrons. However, the boron atom is surrounded by four silicon atoms as
N-type dopants?
shown in the Figure 5.3b. So, one of the covalent bonds is not completed. The
a) Phosphorus b)
absence of an electron creates a hole. Boron needs one more electron to
Gallium c) Arsenic
complete its covalent bond. So, Boron is an acceptor of electrons. In this type of d) Indium
semiconductor, the holes are majority and the electrons are minority.
146 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

Conduction is due to the majority charge carriers which are holes. Here the holes
are behaving like positive charge carriers. This material is therefore called a
P-type semiconductor.

Figure 5.3 (a) Silicon crystal doped with arsenic element. For each arsenic
atom present in the Silicon crystal, there is one extra electron. (b) Silicon
crystal doped with boron. For each boron atom present in the Silicon
crystal, there is one less electron.

Review question 5.1:

1. Why a semiconductor conducts better when it is hot? Explain your

answer.

2. Define intrinsic semiconductor and extrinsic semiconductor.

3. What is P-type and N-type semiconductor?

4. Which of the following impurities could be used to convert intrinsic

silicon to extrinsic P-type silicon? (A) aluminium. (B) germanium.
(C) arsenic. (D) zinc.

5. What type of impurities are chosen for doping to form N-type

semiconductor? (A) trivalent (B) tetravalent (C) pentavalent (D)
both a and c

6. Electrons are the minority carriers in (A) extrinsic semiconductors

(B) P-type semiconductors (C) intrinsic semiconductors (D) N-type
semiconductors
5.2 Diodes and their Functions 147

5.2 Diodes and their Functions

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe what a junction diode is and how it is made.

• Draw and label the schematic symbol for a diode.

• Explain the difference between forward bias and reverse bias of a diode.

• Describe the I-V characteristics of a diode.

• Describe the function of diodes, including rectification.

A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that only conducts current in Brainstorming

one direction and blocks current in the reverse direction. Diodes are made from a question 5.3
large variety of materials including silicon, germanium and gallium arsenide,etc. Do you know a
device which allows
P-N junction diode current to flow in
one direction and
Semiconductor diodes are the most common type of diode. When an N-type blocks in the reverse
semiconductor is joined with the P-type semiconductor, a P-N junction diode direction?
is formed as shown in Figure 5.4. When a P-N junction is formed, some of the
electrons in the N-region diffuse across the junction and combine with holes to
form negative ions on the P-side. In so doing they leave behind positive ions in
the N-region.

Figure 5.4 The P-N junction diode formed between P-type and N-type
semiconductors.
The combination of electrons and holes near the junction creates a narrow region
in the vicinity of the junction called the depletion region. Within the depletion
region, there are very few mobile electrons and holes.
148 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

The electric field created by the ions in the depletion region prevents any further
diffusion across the junction by establishing a barrier potential across the junction.
The barrier potential is the potential difference required to move the electrons
through the electric field. The barrier potential of a P-N junction depends on the
type of semiconductor material. This is approximately 0.7V for silicon and 0.3V
for germanium.
Figure 5.5 shows symbol of a diode. is shown in Figure . The arrow head points in
the direction of conventional current flow. That means the anode is connected to
the P side and the cathode is connected to the N side.

Figure 5.5 a) The P-N junction diode b) P-N junction symbol.

Biasing of P-N junction diode

Applying a suitable DC voltage to a diode is known as biasing. It can be done

in two ways: forward and reverse biasing. Diodes in both forward and reverse
bias are useful for computer chips, solar cells, and other electronic devices. Zero
biasing condition is when no external voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode.

Forward biased

When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type

semiconductor and the negative terminal to the N-type semiconductor, the P-N
junction diode is said to be forward biased (Figure ??).5.6). In forward biasing,
the electrons move towards the junction as they are repelled by the negative
terminal of the battery. Similarly, the holes move towards the junction because
they are repelled by the positive terminal of the battery.
When a forward biasing voltage is applied to a junction diode, the depletion
region becomes very thin and narrow. This represents a low resistance path
through the junction, allowing high currents to flow.
5.2 Diodes and their Functions 149

Figure 5.6 (a) Forward biased P-N junction (b) Forward biased circuit
diagram.

Reverse biased

When the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type

semiconductor and the positive terminal to the N-type semiconductor, the P-N
junction diode is said to be reverse biased (Figure 5.7).
When a reverse biasing voltage is applied to a junction diode,the free electrons
from the N-type semiconductor and the holes from the P-type semiconductor
move away from the P-N junction. This increases the width of the depletion
region,which blocks the majority charge carrier current. This condition
represents a high resistance path through the P-N junction and almost zero
current flows through the junction diode.

Discussion
question 5.2:

What is the
difference between
forward and reverse
biasing?
Give examples of
Figure 5.7 (a) Reverse biased P-N junction (b) reverse biased circuit the application of
diagram. diodes in daily life.

Current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of the semiconductor diode

From the I-V curve (Figure 5.8) we can see that the current is very low if the
forward voltage is lower than the cut-in voltage. The cut-in voltage is the voltage
150 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

at which the forward diode current starts increasing rapidly. Once the forward
bias exceed the cut-in voltage ( 0.3 V for germanium diode, 0.7 V for silicon diode),
the current will be dramatically increased, in the manner that the diode will
function as a short-circuit.Since the diode can conduct very high current above
the cut-in voltage, resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its current
flow.
In the reverse bias, a very small current called a reverse bias current or leakage
current flows through the junction due to the minority charge carriers. If the
Figure 5.8 I-V characterstics of p-n
junction diode. reverse bias voltage is too high, a sharp change in the reverse bias characteristics
occurs. At a certain voltage, called the breakdown voltage, the current in the
reverse direction increases rapidly.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IvZv910pM7Am
Review question 5.2:

1. Define diode.

2. Under forward bias, the resistance is low and the current is high.
True or False.

3. What are the current carriers in P-N junction diode?

4. What is forward bias? What is reverse bias?

5. The characteristic curve of the diode shows the relation between:

(A) Current and voltage. (B) voltage and resistance. (C) voltage and
power. (D) resistance and temperature.

6. Depletion layer is caused by (A) doping (B) recombination (C) barrier

potential (D) ions

5.3 Rectification
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe the working principle of half-wave and full-wave rectification.

• Describe the function of capacitor in the case of full-wave rectification.

• Describe some practical uses of diode.

A P-N junction diode conducts electricity when it is forward biased and it does
5.3 Rectification 151

not conduct electricity when it is reverse biased. Hence, it is used to rectify an

alternating current (AC) voltage supply. The process in which an AC voltage
supply is converted into a unidirectional (DC) voltage is known as rectification
and the electric circuit used for the conversion is called a rectifier. When the AC.
input is applied to a junction diode, it becomes forward biased during the
positive half cycle and reverse biased during negative half-cycle. Rectification is
the main function of diodes.

There are two basic types of rectifier circuit used with power supplies: half-wave
rectifiers and full-wave rectifiers.

Half wave rectification

A half-wave rectifier only allows one half-cycle of an AC voltage waveform to pass

by blocking the other half-cycle. Therefore, the current in the circuit flows in
only one direction. A half-wave rectifier consists of a diode and a load resistor
connected in series to the cathode end of the diode. Figure 5.9 illustrates the
basic principle of a half-wave rectifier.

Figure 5.9 Basic half-wave rectifier.

Working principle of Half Wave Rectifier:

In a half-wave rectifier circuit during the positive half-cycle of the input, the
diode is forward biased. Current flows through the load resistor and a voltage is
developed across it. During the negative half-cycle, the diode is reverse biased
and does not conduct. Therefore, in the negative half-cycle of the supply, no
current flows in the load resistor as no voltage appears across it. Thus the DC
voltage across the load is sinusoidal for the first half-cycle only and a pure AC
input signal is converted into a DC pulsating output signal.
152 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

Full-wave Rectification

The fact that the current flows only during half of each cycle in a half-wave rectifier
is a disadvantage. To overcome this disadvantage, a full-wave rectifier can be
used. Figure 5.10 shows a basic full-wave rectifier circuit, which uses four diodes
arranged in a particular way.

Figure 5.10 Basic full-wave rectifier circuit.

Working principle of full wave bridge rectifier

The four diodes, labeled D1 to D4, are arranged in such a way that only two
diodes conduct current during each half-cycle. During the positive half-cycle
of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series. However, diodes D3 and D4
are reverse biased and so the current flows through the load resistor,as shown
in Figure 5.11a. During the negative half-cycle of the supply , diodes D3 and D4
conduct in series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch off as they are now reverse biased.
The current flowing through the load is the same direction as before as shown in
Figure 5.11.

Figure 5.11 a) positive half cycle b) Negative half cycle.

Diodes and capacitor

Capacitor is used in rectifier circuits to smooth the fluctuations of the output

voltage. A capacitor stores charge and releases it later. The capacitor is connected
5.3 Rectification 153

across the terminals as shown in Figure 5.12. During the positive quarter-cycle
of the output voltage, the capacitor is charged to the peak voltage. Then, as the
rectifier voltage falls, the capacitor discharges and provides the required current
to the load resistor from its stored charge.. This charging and discharging process
of the capacitor smooths out the waveform.

Figure 5.12 Smoothing the output voltage using a capacitor in a full-wave

rectifier.

Practical uses of diodes

Light emitting diodes (LED)

A light emiting diode(LED) is a P-N junction diode which can emit light when
an electrical current flows through it Figure 5.13. It uses a special kind of doping
so that when an electron crosses the P-N junction, a photon is emitted, which
creates light. The frequency(color) of the light emitted is determined by the type
of semiconductor material used in construction of the diode. LED allows the
Figure 5.13 a) LED b) LED symbol
current to flow in the forward direction and blocks the current in the reverse
direction. LEDs are very efficient producers of light.

Photodiode

A photodiode (Figure 5.14) is a semiconductor device with a P-N junction that

converts photons (or light) into electrical current. Photons absorbed in the
depletion region (or close to it) will create electron-hole pairs which will move to
opposite ends of the diode due to the electric field. Electrons will move toward
the positive potential on the cathode, and the holes will move toward the Figure 5.14 Photodiode symbol.
negative potential on the anode. These moving charge carriers form the current
(photocurrent) in the photodiode.
154 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

Logic gates

Diodes and resistors can be combined with other components to construct AND
and OR logic gates. This is referred to as diode resistor logic.These are discussed
in detail in section 5.5.

Over-voltage protection

Excess voltage can damage our electronic devices. Sensitive electronic devices
need to be protected from fluctuations in voltage; the diode is perfect for this.
Diodes achieve this by shutting down the switch after sensing an over-voltage
condition.
Discussion Review question 5.3:
Question 5.3:
1. What is rectification?
If we use half-wave
rectifier, what 2. Describe the function of resistor and capacitor in electronic circuit
percentage of the
input AC power will 3. The dc current through each forward-biased diode in a full-wave
be converted to DC rectifier equals: (A) the load current (B) half the dc load current (C)
power ? twice the dc load current (D) one-fourth the dc load current.

4. The basic reason why a full-wave rectifier has a twice the efficiency
of a half-wave rectifier is that: (A) it makes use of transformer (B) the
heating loss is much less (C) it utilizes both half-cycles of the input
(D ) its output frequency is double the line frequency

5.4 Transistors and their application

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Describe how a transistor is constructed and its two different configurations.

• Draw and label the schematic symbol for an NPN and a PNP transistor.

• Describe the function of a transistor as an amplifier.

• Describe the difference between emitter, base and collector in terms of dopant
concentration.

• Calculate the gain (amplification) of a transistor.

5.4 Transistors and their application 155

A Transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic

signals. It is an essential component in an electronic circuit.

Transistors are classified into two types: bipolar junction transistors (BJT) and
field effect transistors (FET). In this section, you will learn about BJTs.
When a third layer is added to a semiconductor diode, a BJT is produced. The
term, transistor, will now be used for a BJT. A transistor is a three terminal,
two-junction device used to control electron flow. By varying the amount of
voltage applied to the three terminals, the amount of current can be controlled.
This is how transistors can be used for amplification or switching.

A transistor consists of three alternately doped regions. The three regions are
arranged in one of two ways. In the first method, the P-type material is
sandwiched between two N-type materials, forming an NPN transistor (Figure
5.15a). In the second method, a layer of N-type material is sandwiched between
two layers of P-type material, forming a PNP transistor (Figure 5.15b).
In both types of transistor, the middle region is called the base and the outer
regions are called the emitter and collector. The emitter, base, and collector are
identified by the letters E, B, and C, respectively.

Figure 5.15 Block diagrams of (a) NPN transistor (b) PNP transistor.

Emitter: The section on one side that supplies charge carriers (electrons or holes).
The emitter terminal is the heavily doped region as compared to the base and
collector.
Collector: The section on the other side that collects the charges carriers. The
collector is moderately doped region and slightly larger in size as compared to
the base and the emitter.
Base: The middle section between the emitter and the collector. The base is
lightly doped and very thin.
In the symbolic representation for a transistor (Figure 5.16), the arrow mark is
placed on the emitter in the direction of conventional current flow.
156 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

Figure 5.16 Schematic symbols for (a) an NPN transistor (b) a PNP
transistor.

Basic transistor operation

NPN transistor

A transistor must be biased by external voltages so that the emitter, base, and
collector regions interact in the desired manner. In a properly biased transistor,
the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector junction is reverse
biased.

The emitter in NPN transistor is connected to the negative terminal of the battery
while the base is connected to the positive terminal. Since the second P-N
junction is required to be reverse biased for proper transistor operation, the
collector must be connected to an opposite polarity voltage (positive), as shown
in Figure 5.17a.

Figure 5.17 a) NPN transistor b) PNP transistor.

In the forward biased circuit:

• Electrons leave the negative terminal of the battery and enter the N material
(emitter) as shown in Figure5.18. This constitutes the emitter current I E .

• Since electrons are majority current carriers in the N material, they pass
easily through the emitter, cross over the junction, and combine with holes
in the P material (base).
5.4 Transistors and their application 157

• As the base is lightly doped and very thin, only a few electrons combine
with holes and they constitute the base current I B .

• The electron majorities will diffuse to the collector region and constitutes
collector current IC . These electrons are influenced by the positive potential
applied voltage to the collector and are attracted to the positive side of the
voltage source of the collector.

It can then be seen that the emitter current is the sum of the base current and
collector current.

I E = I B + IC (5.1)

The arrows in Figure 5.18 show the direction of the electron current which is
opposite to the direction of the hole current (conventional current).

Figure 5.18 Electron current flow in NPN transistor (a) Block diagram NPN
transistor (b) Schematic diagram of NPN transistor.

Discussion
PNP Transistor
question 5.4:
The PNP transistor works in essentially the same way as the NPN transistor. The 1. How does the
majority current carriers in the PNP transistor are holes. To support this different construction
type of current (hole flow), the bias batteries are reversed that is, the positive of a transistor
terminal of the battery(V E B ) is connected with emitter (P-type) and the negative differ from the

terminal is connected with the base terminal (N-type). Therefore, the emitter- construction of a
P-N junction diode?
base junction is connected in forward bias as shown in Figure 5.17b.
2. What are the two
• Since the base-collector junction is always reverse biased, then the opposite types of bipolar

polarity voltage (negative) should be used for the collector (V C B ), as shown transistors?
3. What are the
in Figure 5.19.
three regions of a
• The emitter current is created when the emitter-base junction is forward transistor? Describe

biased, the emitter pushes the holes towards the base region. their purpose?
158 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

• When the holes move into the base, they combine with the electrons.

• The base is lightly doped and is comparatively thin. Hence only a few holes
are combined with the electrons and the remaining are moved towards the
collector.

Figure 5.19 Electron current flow in PNP transistor. (a) Block diagram of a
biased PNP transistor (b) Schematic diagram of a biased PNP transistor.

Transistor configurations

There are three possible ways to connect a transistor in an electronic circuit with
one terminal being common to both the input and output signal. These
configurations are common-emmiter,common-collector and common-base
(Figure 5.20). Each method of connection responds differently to its input signal
in a circuit as the characteristics of the transistor vary with each circuit
arrangement.

Figure 5.20 NPN Transistor Circuits.

Common-Collector (CC) : In the CC, the input signal is applied between the base
and collector terminal and the output is taken between the emitter and collector
terminal. It provides good current gain but no voltage gain.
Common-base (CB) : In the CB, the input signal is applied between the emitter
and the base terminal and the output signal comes from the collector and base
terminal. This leaves the base common to both the emitter and collector. The
circuit has voltage gain but no current gain.
5.4 Transistors and their application 159

Common-emitter (CE) : In the CE, the input signal is applied between the base
and emitter terminal , and the output is taken between the collector and emitter Discussion
terminal. The circuit (Figure 5.22) has both current and voltage gain. question 5.5

The CE is commonly used because its current and voltage, power gain are quite 1. Which terminal
high.The ratio of collector current to base current is called the amplification current in the

factor or current gain β. Amplification is the property of a transistor to raise the transistor controls
the collector
strength of a weak signal. It is calculated using the equation:
current?
IC 2. What is the
β= most commonly
IB
used transistor
configuration?
Example 5.1
3. What is (are)
A transistor has a current gain of 250 and a base current 20 µA. What is the collector the high gain(s)
current? in common-base,
common-collector
Solution: and common-
IC
From the relation, β = emitter transistor
IB
circuits?
IC = βIB = 250 × 20 µA = 5 mA

Output characteristics of common-emitter

The output characteristics for a CE transistor describe the change in collector

current IC when an increasing voltage VC E is placed between the collector and
emitter. A greater amount of current flows from the emitter to the collector when
there is a small change of current through the base. To determine the output
characteristics, the input current or base current I B is kept constant. However, the Figure 5.21 Output characteristics
graph is usually plotted for more than one base current (Figure 5.21). Notice that of common-emitter transistor.
the base current is small in micro-Ampere, but the collector current is in milli-
Ampere. For example, with the transistor represented by the graph, a change of
10 µA in the base current would produce a change of around 2 mA in the collector
current, which is about 200 times more than the base current.

Transistor applications
Figure 5.22 common emitter
The main applications of transistors are amplification of electrical signal and circuit
switching. The transistor is a very useful and widely usable electronic component.
160 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

• Most of the parts of modern electronic devices like computers,

smartphones, tablets, smart watches, etc are made up with transistors
where they are acting as switches.

• Transistor can amplify electronic signal. A weak signal applied in the input
circuit appears in the amplified form in the output circuit.

• Transistors can be combined to form a logic gate, which compares multiple

input currents to provide a different output. Computers with logic gates
can make simple decisions using boolean algebra. These techniques are
the foundation of computer programs.

• Transistors are used in complex switching circuits that comprise all modern
telecommunications systems.

• They are the basic elements in integrated circuits (ICs), which consist of a
large number of transistors interconnected in a circuit.

• In large numbers, transistors are used to create microprocessors where

millions of transistors are embedded in nearly all ICs, which are part of
every electronic device.

Review question 5.4:

1. Describe the function of transistor in electronic circuit

2. Which of the transistor currents is the largest? Which is the smallest?

3. The doping concentration of base in PNP transistor is (A) lightly

doped (B) moderately doped (C) heavily doped (D) not doped

4. Which junction in the transistor is forward biassed? Which junction

reverse biassed?

5. In transistor, if the current gain is 100 and the collector current is 10

mA, what is the emitter current?
5.5 Integrated Circuits 161

5.5 Integrated Circuits

At the end of this section, you will be able to: Brainstorming

• Explain the importance of integrated circuits. question 5.4

How diodes,
• Identify the major components of an integrated circuit.
transistors and
• Identify advantages and disadvantages of integrated circuits. other electrical
elements are
Transistors and other semiconductor devices have made it possible to reduce the connected to
size of electronic circuits because of their small size and low power consumption. perform a certain

It is now possible to extend the principles behind semiconductors to complete task?

circuits as well as individual components.

The importance of integrated circuits

Integrated circuits are used in almost all electronic equipment in use today and
have revolutionized the world of electronics. The integrated circuit was invented
by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce. This invention is a boon for digital technologies
like computer, mobile phones, MP3, fans, traffic lights, DVDs and many other
devices. The goal of the integrated circuit is to develop a single device to perform
a specific function, such as amplification or switching, microprocessor, timer, as
computer memory, eliminating the separation between components and circuits.

Figure 5.23 Integrated circuits.

The components of an integrated circuit

An integrated circuit (IC) (also referred to as a chip, or a microchip) is a set of

electronic circuits on one small flat piece (or "chip") of semiconductor material,
usually silicon (Figure 5. 23). It is no larger than that of a conventional low-power
162 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

transistor. The circuit consists of diodes, transistors, resistors, and capacitors.

Integrated circuits are produced with the same technology and materials used in
making transistors and other semiconductor devices.

Advantages and disadvantages of integrated components

Among the four types of components included in integrated circuits only a very
small amount of the space is occupied by diodes and transistors. The rest is
occupied by resistors and capacitors as their size increases with their value. The
most obvious advantage of the integrated circuit is its small size. An integrated
circuit is constructed of a chip of semiconductor material approximately
one-eighth of an inch square. Due to the integrated circuit’s small size, it is used
extensively in military and aerospace programs. The integrated circuit has also
transformed the calculator from a desktop to a handheld instrument. Computer
systems are now available in portable models because of integrated circuits. This
small, integrated circuit consumes less power and operates at higher speeds than
a conventional transistor circuit. The electron travel time is reduced by direct
connection of the internal components.

Integrated circuits are more reliable than directly connected transistor circuits. In
the integrated circuit, internal components are connected permanently. The
components are formed at the same time, reducing the chance for error. After the
integrated circuit is formed, it is pretested before final assembly.
Integrated circuits reduce the number of parts needed to construct electronic
equipment. This reduces manufacturing cost and further reducing the cost of
electronic equipment. Integrated circuits do have some disadvantages. They
cannot handle large amounts of current or voltage. High current generates
excessive heat, damaging the device. High voltage breaks down the insulation
between the various internal components. Furthermore, integrated circuits
cannot be repaired. This is because the internal components cannot be
separated. Therefore, problems are identified by individual circuit instead of by
individual component.
5.6 Logic gates and logic circuits 163

5.6 Logic gates and logic circuits

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Identify digital and analog signals.

• Identify and explain the function of the basic logic gates.

• Draw the symbols and analog switch circuit for the basic logic gates.

• Develop truth tables for the basic logic gates.

Brainstorming
Digital and analog signals question 5.5

What mechanism
In electronics and telecommunications, "signal" refers to any time-varying
is used to record
voltage, current, or electromagnetic wave that carries information. Two main
and store video and
types of signals encountered in practice are analog and digital.
audio information
An analog signal is any continuous signal representing some time-varying including musical
quantity. The voltage signals which vary continuously with time are called sounds we often
continuous or analog voltage signals. Figure 5.24 shows a typical voltage signal, watch or listen?

varying as a sinusoidal wave of 0 to 5 v. An analogue signal carries a smooth wave.

At any time, the voltage of the signal could take any value.
A digital signal is a signal that is being used to represent data as a sequence of
discrete values; at any given time, it can only take on, at most, one of a finite
number of values. In most digital circuits, the digital signal can have two possible
valid values; this is called a binary signal or logic signal. They are represented by
two voltage bands: one near a reference value (typically termed as ground or zero
volts), and the other a value near the supply voltage. It is either low or high. It
never has any other value. These two special voltages are given symbols. The low
voltage level is written as 0, while the high voltage level is written as 1.

Using a computer, any information can be turned into a pattern of 0s and 1s.
Figure 5.24 Analog and digital
Pictures, recorded music, text and motion pictures can all be turned into a string signals.
of 0s and 1s and transmitted or stored in the same way. The computer receiving
the signal at the other end converts it back again. A compact disc (CD) for example,
can store music or text or pictures, and all of them can be read using a computer.
You can don all kinds of mathematics using 0s and 1s. That is what computers do.
164 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

Positive and negative logic

In computing systems, the binary number symbols ’0’ and ’1’ represent two
possible states of a circuit or an electronic device.

Table 5.1 Positive logic

. Circuit Switch Voltage Sign Statement

1 on closed high plus TRUE
0 off opened low minus FALSE

Table 5.2 Negative logic

. Circuit Switch Voltage Sign Statement

1 off opened low minus false
0 on closed high plus true

If we say that value 1 stands for 5V and value 0 for 0 V, then we have positive logic
system. If on the other hand, we decide that 1 should represent 0 V (low voltage)
and 0 should represent 5 V (high voltage), then we have negative logic system.

Logic gates

Digital electronics is a field of electronics involving the study of digital signals

and the engineering of devices that use or produce digital signals. This is in
contrast to analog electronics and analog signals. The simplest digital circuits are
called logic gates. An integrated circuit is a collection of logic gates. The logic
gates are building blocks of digital electronics. Each logic gate is made of many
microscopic transistors connected together inside a thin slice of silicon. They are
used in digital electronics to change one voltage level (input voltage) into another
(output voltage) according to some logical statement relating to them. Thus, a
logic gate is a digital circuit, which works according to some logical relationship
between the input and output voltage. The logic gate may have one or more
inputs, but only one output.

The logical statements that logic gates follow are called Boolean expressions.

1. In Boolean algebra, the addition sign (+) is referred to as OR. The Boolean
expression for OR is:
y = A +B (5.2)
5.6 Logic gates and logic circuits 165

This Boolean expression is read as y is equal to A ’OR’ B.

2. The multiplication sign (.) is referred to as AN D in Boolean algebra. The

Boolean expression for this is:

y = A.B (5.3)

This Boolean expression is read as y is equal to A ’AND’ B.

3. The bar sign (-) is referred to as NOT in Boolean algebra. The Boolean
expression is:
y=A (5.4)

This expression is read as y is equal to ’NOT’ A.

The OR gate, AND gate and NOT gate are called basic logic gates. The NOR
gate and NAND gate are called universal logic gates because any logic gate can
be made from combinations of NAND gate or NOR gates. Each of these gates
performs a different logical operation.

OR gate

Two parallel switches and Lamp is connected as shown in Figure 5.25. Lamp ”ON”
is equal to 1 and lamp “OFF” is equal to 0.

• If both switches A and B are open, no current will flow through the external
wire. So the lamp is OFF i.e. equal to 0.

• If switch A is closed switch B is open, the current passes through switch A

and the lamp is ON, i.e. equal to 1; 1 + 0 = 1

• If switch A is open and switch B is closed, the current passes through B and
the lamp is ON, i.e. equal to 1; 0 + 1 = 1

• If both switches are closed, tamp is ON, i.e. equal to 1; 1 + 1 = 1

166 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

Figure 5.25 The OR gate symbol, switch circuit and truth table.

You can see from the truth table that the Boolean expression y = A + B makes
sense. The only case where the OR function differs from normal addition is when
A = 1 and B = 1. Here A OR B = 1 in logic, but A+B=2 in arithmetic. However, there
is no such thing as ‘2’ in logic, so we define + to mean ‘OR’, and write 1 + 1=1.
Application of OR gate: An OR gate can be used to fit two light switches for a
long, dark corridor which has one switch at each end of the corridor. Each of the
switches send an output of 0 to the control unit if no-one has pressed the switch.
If someone presses the switch, its output is 1. The lights in the corridor should
come on if either witch is pressed.

AND gate

In general, the simple AND gate is also a two inputs and one output logic gate. It
combines the inputs A and B to give the output y, following the Boolean expression

y = A.B (5.5)

The AND operation is written as multiplication. A AND B is written AB. If either A

or B are 0, then AB will also be 0. For AB to be 1, we need A and B to both be 1.

Figure 5.26 The AND gate symbol, switch circuit and truth table.
The symbol, equivalent circuit and truth for an AND gate are shown in Figure 5.26.
The function of the AND gate is such that the output is TRUE if and only if all the
inputs are in TRUE conditions. In this circuit, the switches and the lamp are in
5.6 Logic gates and logic circuits 167

series. All the possible inputs and resulting outputs are tabulated in a truth table.

• If both switches A and B are OPEN (i.e., A = 0, B = 0) then the lamp will not
glow, i.e.y = 0. The current will not pass through the lamp.

• If switch A is closed and switch B is open, the current will not pass through
the lamp. The lamp is OFF, so y = 0.

• If switch A is open and switch B is closed, the current will not pass through
the lamp. The lamp is OFF, so y = 0.

• If both switches A and B are closed, current will pass through the circuit.
Now the lamp is ON and glowing. So y = 1.

Application of AND gate: An AND gate can be used to fit an automatic circuit to
light up a display in an airplane if two toilets are in use. Then passengers know
that if the light is off, there is a free toilet for them to use. There is a sensor in each
toilet. It gives out a 0 if the toilet is free, and a 1 if it is in use. You can send a 1 to
the display unit if both sensors are sending 1. That is, if both toilets are occupied.

NOT gate

The NOT gate is a one input and one output logic gate. It inverts or complements
the input A to give output y following the Boolean expression.

y=A (5.6)

This gate is also called an ’inverter’. . The symbol, equivalent circuit and truth
table are shown in Figure 5.27.

Figure 5.27 The NOT gate symbol, switch circuit and truth table.

• If switch A is open, the current will pass through the lamp and it will glow.
So, y = 1 when A = 0
168 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

• If switch A is closed, the current will take the shortest path and pass through
the switch. Hence the lamp is OFF, so y = 0 when A = 1.

Application of NOT gate : Let’s assume you want the water pipe in your garden
to automatically turn on when it is very dry.. You already have a digital electronic
soil moisture sensor. To make the pipe work, you need a circuit which will change
a 0 (from the sensor) into a 1 (to send to the pipe). This will make the pipe turn
on when the soil is dry. You also want it to change a 1 (from the sensor) into a 0
(to send to the digital pipe). This will close the pipe when the soil is wet.

NOR gate

A NOR logic gate is one in which OR gate is followed by a NOT gate. The symbol,
equivalent circuit and truth table are shown in Figure 5.28. The function of this
gate is ’inverting’ the output of the OR gate.

Figure 5.28 The NOR gate symbol.

The NOR gate combines the inputs A and B to give the output y, by the Boolean
expression:
y = A +B (5.7)

Figure 5.29 The NOR gate switch circuit and truth table.

• switch A and switch B are open, the current will flow through the lamp, and
the lamp is ON. So y = 1.

• If switch A is closed and switch B is open, the current will pass through
switch A (low resistance path) and reach the cathode of the battery. The
lamp is OFF, so y = 0.
5.6 Logic gates and logic circuits 169

• If switch A is open and switch B is closed, the current will pass through
switch B (low resistance path) and reach the cathode of the battery. The
lamp is ‘OFF’, so y = 0.

• If switch A and switch B are closed, the current from the battery will pass
through the two parallel switches (the low resistance paths) reach the
cathode of the battery. The lamp is OFF, so y = 0.

NAND gate

A NAND logic gate is one is logic gate in which an AND gate is followed by a NOT
gate. The symbol, equivalent circuit and truth table are shown in Figure 5.30.
The function of this gate is to invert the output of the AND gate. It combines the
inputs A and B to give the output y, by the following Boolean expression:

y = A.B (5.8)

Figure 5.30 The NAND gate symbol, switch circuit and truth table.

• If both switches A and B are open, the current will flow through the lamp.
The lamp is ON, so y = 1

• If the switch A is closed and B is open, the current will again flow through
the lamp. The lamp is ON, so y = 1.

• If the switch A is open and B is closed, the current flows through the lamp.
The open switch A act as a inter circuit breaker. The lamp is ON, so y = 1.

• If the switch A and B are in closed position, the current will pass through the
switches (low resistance path) and reach the cathode of the battery. Hence,
the lamp is OFF, So, y = 0
170 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

Exercise 5.1
Figure 5.31 shows
a logic circuit and
its incomplete truth
table. Complete the
truth table.

Exercise 5.2
Figure 5.31 A logic circuit and its incomplete truth table
Figure 5.32 shows
a logic circuit and
its incomplete truth
table. Complete the
truth table.

Exercise 5.3
Figure 5.32 A logic circuit and its incomplete truth table
The truth table of a
logic circuit is given
in Figure 5.33 (a)
and (b). Name the
logic circuit..

Brainstorming
question 5.6
Figure 5.33 Truth tables of a logic circuit
Dear students, think
of your living area
including your 5.7 Application of electronics
house. List as many
devices as you can We use a large number of electronic gadgets to simplify our work and to solve our
think of that use problems. From small alarm watches to complex computers, from mobile phones
electricity. This may to camcorders, from leisure items to equipment for work, electronic items can be
be transmitting everywhere. Here are details of a few applications of electronics:
information,
controlling other 1. Aerospace industry
machine, displaying
information, storing
Electronics is widely used in aerospace such as Space shuttle, Satellite
information, and power supplies, aircraft power management. Even in commercial airlines
many more. there are hundreds of instruments which are used to measure different
5.7 Application of electronics 171

physical factors like temperature, pressure, elevation, etc.

2. Medical

The development of electronics, and particularly that of computers, has

made it possible for a doctors to examine patients. Many machines like X-
ray, MRI and others which are the combination of different physics
theorems and electronics. There are tremendous advancement of
electronics in the field of medical sciences. There are a few recent
innovations which show how important electronics is in medical science -
Robotic Check-Ups, Needle-Free Diabetes Care, Electronic Aspirin, etc.

3. Automobile

Electronics are used in road vehicles, such as carputers, telematics, in-car

entertainment systems, etc. The first electronic pieces in cars were used
to control engine functions; they were referred to as engine control units.
Now, electronics are used in engine, transmission, chassis, active safety,
driver assistance, passenger comfort and entertainment systems.

4. Agriculture

With an increase in global warming, many devices and systems are being
built to monitor a crops. For example, e-Agri Sensors Centre producing
sensors to monitor the crop above and below the land. These sensors
monitor the crop quality as well as the needs of the crop during growth.
There are also several other electronic gadgets which are used for measuring
the moisture level, nutrition level and also salinity of the soil.

5. Communication

Electronic devices and systems are used for the acquisition or acceptance,
processing, storage, display, analysis, protection, disposition, and transfer
of information.

6. Residential

There are also various electronic equipment which make our life easy and
better. These include appliances such as air conditioner, cooking
appliances, dryer, personal computer etc. These equipment make daily life
easy. Nowadays, mobile phones are used by each and every person.
172 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

Discussion
Question 5.6 7. Military

Explain how
Electronics devices and machinery are also widely used in military.
electronics is used in: Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and drones are some common aerial
1. Agriculture electronics machines which are used in the military for aerial attack as well
2. Medicine as for monitoring. There are also some electronics equipment used in guns
3. Military and airplanes which help soldiers to target his enemy during frontline war.
4. Communication
Magnetic anomaly detector Night vision device, People sniffer, infrared
detector and night vision camera etc. are some gadgets used by military.

Project

1. Dear students, using broken parts of electronic devices, identify

and classify different types of diodes. From your collection of
broken parts and the school lab, assisted by your teacher, construct
functional devices for personal applications.

2. Dear students, using some electronic devices available in the school

Lab construct a half-wave rectification circuit. Present your circuit
to the class.

Unit summary

• At zero Kelvin, a semiconductor serves as an insulator. As the

temperature increases, the conductivity increases, and vice versa.

• Doping is the process of adding impurities to a semiconductor material.

• By adding certain selected impurities to the pure semi-conductor in a

very small ratio, the conductivity of a semiconductor crystal can be
improved.

• In semiconductors, a hole is an electric charge carrier with a positive

charge, equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity to the charge on
an electron.

• In N-type materials, electrons are the majority carrier and holes are the
minority carrier. In P-type materials, holes are the majority carrier
and electrons are the minority carrier.
5.7 Application of electronics 173

• A junction diode is created by joining N-type and P-type materials

together.

• The depletion region is a region in a P-N junction diode where no mobile

charge carriers are present. Depletion layer acts like a barrier that
opposes the flow of electrons from N-side and holes from P-side.

• Applying a suitable DC voltage to a diode is known as biasing.

• The I-V characteristic curves shows the relationship between the current
flowing through a diode and the applied voltage across its terminals.

• The process in which an AC voltage is converted into a unidirectional

(DC) voltage is known as rectification.

• A half-wave rectifier only allows one half-cycle of an AC voltage waveform

to pass by blocking the other half-cycle.

• A full-wave rectifier is a diode circuit which is used to transform the

complete cycle of AC voltage supply to DC.

• A capacitor is used in rectifier circuits to smooth the fluctuations of the

output voltage

• A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light

when an electricity passes through it.

• A bipolar junction transistor is a three layer (NPN or PNP) semiconductor

device.

• The three layers are called the emitter, base and collector.

• A transistor consists of two P-N junction. The junction are formed by

positioning either P-type or N-type semiconductor layers between a
pair of opposite types.

• The base is lightly doped and sandwiched between the collector and the
emitter. The collector is moderately doped and the emitter is heavily
doped.

• The base region is much thinner than either the collector or emitter
regions.
174 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

• The transistor operates when base-emitter junction is forward biased

and base-collector is reversed biased.

• Transistors can be used for amplification or switching.

• Transistors are used in digital computers, satellites, mobile phones and

other communication systems, control systems,etc.

• The arrowhead in the symbol of a transistor indicates the direction of a

conventional current flow.

• In NPN transistors the majority carriers are free electrons, while in PNP
transistors these are the holes.

• There are three types of configuration for the operation of a

transistor: common-emitter, common-base and common-collector
configurations.

• The current gain in the common-emitter circuit is called beta. β is the

ratio of collector current to base current.

• Integrated circuits cannot handle large amounts of current or voltage.

• Diodes, transistors, resistors, and capacitors are available as integrated

circuits.

• Integrated circuits cannot be repaired, only replaced.

• An AND gate produces a 1 output when all of its inputs are 1s. It performs
the basic operation of multiplication.

• An OR gate produces a 1 output if any of its inputs are 1s. It performs the
basic operation of addition.

• A NOT gate performs the function called inversion or complementation.

It coverts the input state to an opposite output state.

• A NAND gate is a combination of an AND gate and a NOT gate. It

produces 1 output when any of the inputs are 0s.

• A NOR gate is a combination of an OR gate and a NOT gate. It produces

a 1 output only when both inputs are 0s.
5.7 Application of electronics 175

• Electronics is widely used in aerospace such as Space shuttle, Satellite

power supplies, aircraft power management. Even in commercial
airlines. They are used to measure different physical factors like
temperature, pressure,elevation, etc.

• Electronics devices and machinery are widely used in medicine. Today

many medical devices and system such as MRI, CT scan x-ray,etc
are builds with the combination of different physics theorem and
electronics.

• Electronics are used in road vehicles, such as: carputers, telematics, in

car entertainment systems,to control engines. etc.

• Electronics has made daily life much easier and better.

• Many devices and system are build with combination of electronics

and different other techniques to monitor the activities in
agriculture,such as for measuring the moisture level, nutrition level
in soil and also salinity of soil,etc.

• Electronic devices and systems are used for the processing, storage,
display, analysis, protection, and transfer of information.

• Electronics equipment used in guns and airplanes which help soldiers

to target his enemy during frontline war.

• Night vision device, people sniffer, infrared detector and night vision
camera, drones, etc. are some electronic gadgets used by military.

End unit questions

1. What determines whether a semiconductor material, when doped, is an

N-type or P-type?

2. How does doping support current flow in a semiconductor material?

3. What is a P-N junction?

4. Define a half-wave rectifier and full-wave rectifier.

5. How should collector-base and emitter-base junctions be biased?

176 Unit 5 Basics of electronics

6. What are transistors used for?

7. In which direction does the arrow point on an NPN transistor?

8. To properly bias an NPN transistor, what polarity voltage is applied to

the collector, and what is its relationship to the base voltage?

9. In the NPN transistor, what section is made very thin compared with the
other two sections?

10. What is the name of the device that provides an increase in current,
voltage, or power of a signal without appreciably altering the original
signal?

11. In the common emitter transistor amplifier, what is the phase

relationship between the input and output signals?

12. What is the current gain for a common-base configuration where

I E = 4.2 mA and IC = 4.0 mA?

13. What two symbols are used in digital electronics, to represent a “high”
and a “low”? What is this system known as?
Figure 5.34 A logic gate circuit
14. What is the difference between a digital signal and an analog signal?

15. What is a logic gate?

16. Write out the truth table for the circuit shown in Figure 5.34. Which
single gate is this circuit equivalent to?

17. Write out the truth table for the circuit shown in Figure 5.35. Which
single gate is this circuit equivalent to?

18. What logical operations are performed by an AND gate and an OR gate?
Figure 5.35 A logic gate circuit
19. What negative logic and positive logic mean?

20. Draw the symbol for a NAND gate and write the Boolean expression for
it.