Research about mobility model and potential use of VANET

Jiahong Liu*a, Ting Meib, Crystal May Xuc, Zhiyuan Lid, Yize Dinge
a
Hongwen School Qingdao Campus, Qingdao 266101, China; bSchool of Electrical Engineering and
Automation, Anhui University, Hefei 230601, China; cJohns Creek High School, Atlanta 30022,
United States; dUniversity of Massachusetts Boston, Dorchester 02125, United States; eWuhan
British China School, Wuhan 430035, China

ABSTRACT

VANET is a special type of mobile ad-hoc network (MANET), focusing one wireless communication between vehicles
and between vehicles and roadside infrastructure. It is an indispensable component of the Intelligent Transportation System
(ITS). There are numerous protocols which can be used by engineers construct the VANET. However, there is a lack of
information about the reliability and the performance about each protocol. In this paper, we establish a model that can
accurately reflect the road and traffic condition of the real world. Therefore, the proposed model can be used to test the
safety level and efficiency of different model. Moreover, we also evaluate and analyse three commonly used models in
detail based on the simulation of the proposed system. In the end, we use our conclusion to explain some difficulties in
other paper, and provide the future potential of this system for VANET.
Keywords: C-V2X, communication, protocols, network, congestion, robustness, security, measures, intrusion detection,
interoperability

1. INTRODUCTION
Vehicular ad hoc networks are ad hoc networks built between vehicles and vehicles or between vehicles and roadside
infrastructure. Its purpose is to provide communication among vehicles so as to achieve information sharing. Vehicular ad
hoc networks improve efficiency and its security by the interaction among vehicle information (such as speed, acceleration,
position, direction and, etc.) and traffic information (such as traffic congestion, traffic lights, some real-time road state and,
etc.). Vehicular ad hoc networks are mainly used in following five aspects: intelligent transportation system of safety
warning, assist driving, distributed traffic information release, vehicle control and office entertaining based on vehicle
communication.
Vehicular ad hoc networks have attracted much attention both from academic and industrial fields. At present, many related
research based on vehicular ad hoc networks have been made. The node topology is changing frequently due to the fact
that road restrictions and vehicles’ fast speed and many of existing protocols and applications cannot be suitable for
vehicular ad hoc networks. Therefore, it is necessary for us to study out new protocols and applications that meet the
characteristics of vehicular ad hoc networks. Considering the huge testing cost of human and material in the real scenario,
evaluations on new proposed applications and protocols are commonly executed by using simulation methodology.
1.1 Introduction of vehicular Ad hoc networks (VANETs)
In recent years, there has been increasing attention given to traffic safety, and wireless communication among vehicles is
considered a viable approach to reducing traffic accidents. Moreover, as public purchasing power has grown, onboard
entertainment has also emerged as a focal point of research. With the ongoing evolution of computer information
processing and wireless communication technologies, Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) have been proposed to
facilitate the aforementioned ideas. The topology of Mobile Ad Hoc Networks is dynamic, and its bandwidth and energy
are constrained by the conditions of mobile nodes themselves. MANETs are self-organizing networks where all mobile
devices, such as airplanes, ships, and vehicles, can function as mobile nodes. Vehicle Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs),
introduced during the 2003 ITU-T standardization meeting on automotive communication, use vehicles as mobile nodes
and represent a specialized type of MANETs designed specifically for vehicle communication. Communication within

*[email protected]

Third International Conference on Algorithms, Network, and Communication Technology

(ICANCT 2024), edited by Fabrizio Marozzo, Proc. of SPIE Vol. 13545,
135451D · © 2025 SPIE · 0277-786X · doi: 10.1117/12.3060082

Proc. of SPIE Vol. 13545 135451D-1

VANETs can be categorized into two types: vehicle-to-vehicle communication and vehicle-to-infrastructure
communication1.
Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) utilize satellite systems for obtaining Global Positioning System (GPS) and Digital
Multimedia Broadcasting (DMB) services. In VANETs, vehicles serve not only as mobile nodes but also as routers for
transmitting information, enabling vehicles to connect with each other through multi-hop communication. Additionally,
infrastructure such as streetlights and gas stations can be designated as fixed cellular gateways and WLAN access points.
Through these infrastructure elements, VANETs can connect to the Internet, gather traffic information, and provide support
for routing information2.
1.2 Features of vehicular Ad hoc networks (VANETs)
In Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs), there is no fixed infrastructure; instead, the network relies solely on routing
information from regular nodes. Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs), as a specialized type of MANETs, exhibit
significant differences from other self-organizing networks3:
Dynamic Topology: VANET topologies change rapidly due to vehicles moving at high speeds.
Frequent Network Disconnections: Nodes frequently disconnect as they move quickly, particularly with lower vehicle
densities.
Sufficient Energy and Storage Capacity: Unlike small devices, VANET nodes, which are vehicles, have ample energy,
storage, and processing capabilities.
Diverse Communication Environments: VANETs are deployed in various settings such as highways and urban roads, each
presenting unique challenges like buildings, vegetation, and obstacles that affect vehicle-to-vehicle communication.
Strict Transmission Delays: Many VANET applications require strict transmission time limits rather than high data rates.
For example, in automated highway systems, brake signals must promptly transmit to prevent collisions.
Mobility Models: VANET protocol design must consider mobility models due to vehicle nodes' high-speed movement and
dynamic topology changes4.
Vehicular ad hoc networks primarily enhance traffic safety, vehicle efficiency, and offer onboard office and entertainment
services. VANETs deliver collision warnings, obstacle alerts, intersection collision warnings, assisted driving, and lane
change assistance to vehicles. Data includes vehicle position, direction, speed, and information on nearby vehicles. Safety
information transmitted on the control channel can generate event-triggered alerts or periodic updates. Alerts warn vehicle
operators of potential collision events or unsafe speeds, ensuring proactive avoidance of hazards on the road during normal
operations5.

2. REVIEW OF STATE OF THE ART

The advanced technology of Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks (VANETs) covers a number of key areas, designed to improve
communication efficiency, enhance security and optimize service quality. The following are the main advanced
technologies of VANETs.
2.1 Communication technology

2.1.1 IEEE 802.11p standard (also called WAVE, Wireless Access in the Vehicular Environment). It is a protocol expanded
by IEEE 802.11 standards. This communication agreement is mainly used in the wireless communication of car electronics.
It is set to extend from IEEE 802.11 to meet the related applications of intelligent transportation system (Intelligent
Transportation Systems, ITS). This is a standard designed specifically for vehicle communication, working in the 5.9 GHz
frequency band, providing high-speed data transmission and low latency, suitable for real-time traffic information
transmission and security warnings.

2.1.2 LTE-V. It is a communication technology based on LTE network and expanded on the Internet of vehicles, which
can realize the efficient real-time interconnection between vehicles, between vehicles and infrastructure, and between
vehicles and pedestrians. Provides wider connectivity and higher bandwidth, supporting more data-intensive applications,
such as HD map updates and media streaming.

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LTE Advanced Pro (3GPP Release 13+) is expanding LTE to a wide range of new industries and enabling new use cases
beyond smartphones, such as automotive and IoT. It is comprised of a rich roadmap of technologies that will be submitted
with 5G NR to meet IMT-2020 requirements6.
2.2 Location and navigation techniques
2.2.1 Global positioning system (GPS). It is a positioning system with high precision radio navigation based on artificial
earth satellite developed and launched by the United States. The Global Positioning System (GPS) provides accurate
geographic location, vehicle speed, and accurate time information from anywhere in the world and in the near-Earth space.
We can accurately obtain the vehicle location information through GPS technology, and support the navigation system,
traffic management and emergency response.
2.2.2 Communication between vehicles and between vehicles and facilities. Communication between vehicles: V2V is
Vehicle to Vehicle, which means the wireless communication between the car, so that the car can sense the information
with the surrounding car in the process of driving, prevent risks in advance, and inform the driver to make avoidance
measures. This feature is now used in many family cars, using millimeter-wave radar or cameras to detect security risks.
Vehicle infrastructure communication: V2I, where I is Infrastructure, refers to the communication between vehicles and
road infrastructure, such as road traffic lights, detection equipment such as cameras, and traffic signs such as lane signs.
Through V2V and V2I communication, vehicles can exchange real-time location, speed and road condition information,
thus improving traffic flow management and accident prevention capabilities.
Similar to V2P and V2N, here P is Person, which refers to the communication between people and cars. When we sit in
the car, the communication between people and the car begins, the speed of the code meter, the amount of gasoline, and
the door alarm and so on, all involve the communication of people and the car information. This kind of human-car
communication is also crucial, as a friend said, after getting on the car, his legs are the accelerator and brake, the hand is
the steering wheel, and always look at six, listen to all the way. In addition to the communication between the car and the
driver, it also includes the communication between the car and the pedestrian on the road, how to predict the direction of
the pedestrian, and make necessary safety measures, which is also a very important topic for road traffic safety. V2N, this
N is the Network, including the vehicle can be linked to the data ZTE or control center, through the control center of the
vehicle form of control7.
Obviously, none of these can contain all the vehicle communication, so there is this V2X, X for everything, the concept of
car connection everything comes out, that is, the communication between the car and all transactions, including V2V, V2I,
V2P and V2N and so on. Through the V2X technology implementation, to achieve the safety of manual driving and
autonomous driving. Figure 1 shows how vehicles connect with servers.

Figure 1. How vehicles connect with servers

2.3 Security and privacy protection technology
2.3.1 Authentication and encryption. Ensure the integrity and security of communication data to prevent malicious
attacks and data tampering.

2.3.2 Anonymity technology. It is particularly important to protect users' personal identity information, prevent privacy
leakage and tracking risks, especially in location-related applications.

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2.4 Intelligent transportation system (ITS) integration
Intelligent Transportation Systems, ITS integration covers a variety of technologies and systems designed to improve the
efficiency, safety and environmental sustainability of transportation systems. The integration capabilities of these systems
enable urban and road managers to better monitor and manage traffic flow, provide real-time information to drivers and
passengers, and optimize the use of traffic resources8.
2.4.1 Real-time data analysis and decision support. Big data analysis of real-time collected vehicle and road data to
optimize traffic flow, improve road conditions and provide intelligent navigation recommendations. The real-time traffic
information system provides real-time traffic conditions, congestion conditions and the recommended best routes through
sensors, traffic condition data and vehicle communication. The intelligent navigation system combines real-time traffic
information and personalized route recommendation to provide drivers with the optimal driving route and navigation
guidance.
2.4.2 Traffic management and optimization. Based on real-time traffic flow and demand, the intelligent traffic signal
system dynamically adjusts the timing of traffic signals to optimize traffic flow and reduce congestion. Adaptive signal
control is to adjust the signal timing according to the real-time changes of traffic conditions, and improve the road
throughput and traffic efficiency. Use intelligent signal light control, priority scheduling and route optimization to reduce
traffic congestion, improve traffic efficiency and safety.
The integration of intelligent transportation systems is not only dependent on technological advances, but also requires
close collaboration between government departments, urban planners, and technology providers. Through effective system
integration, it can significantly improve the efficiency of urban transportation, reduce traffic accidents, improve air quality,
and provide a more efficient and convenient travel experience for residents and enterprises.
2.5 Vehicle perception and control system
It covers a range of technologies and equipment used to sense the surroundings and effectively control the vehicle. These
systems can not only improve the driver's driving experience, but also significantly improve traffic safety and efficiency.
2.5.1 Sensor technology. Radar is used to detect surrounding vehicles, obstacles and pedestrians and provide accurate
distance and speed information. The camera detects and identifies road signs, traffic lights, pedestrians, and other vehicles,
using image recognition and computer vision technology. Ultrasonic sensors are used for detecting close-range obstacles,
such as detecting surrounding walls or other vehicles when stopping. Then the data obtained by different sensors is fused
and processed to improve the accuracy and reliability of environmental perception. In order to analyze the data in real time,
analyze and process the perceptual data in real time, generate detailed maps and dynamic data of the environment around
the vehicle, and support intelligent decision-making and driver assistance functions.
2.5.2 Autonomous driving technology. Combined with sensor data and V2V communication, the collaborative driving and
automatic driving functions between vehicles are realized to improve driving safety and comfort. The integration and
application of these advanced technologies make the on-board ad hoc network system make significant progress in
realizing efficient, safe and intelligent traffic management, and lay a solid foundation for the development of intelligent
transportation system in the future.
The development and application of vehicle perception and control system not only makes driving more intelligent and
safe, but also provides a key foundation for the realization of future autonomous driving technology and intelligent
transportation systems. The integration of these technologies will revolutionize future transportation, improving traffic
safety, reducing traffic congestion, and improving the travel experience of urban residents.

3. PROPOSED SYSTEM AND ALGORITHMS

3.1 Introduction to the proposed system
Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) are a special type of Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) that enable
communication between vehicles as well as between vehicles and roadside infrastructure. This system aims to improve
traffic efficiency and safety and provide real-time information to the driver by using advanced mobility models and
communication protocols to accommodate the dynamic and high-speed characteristics of VANET9.

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3.2 Proposed system
The proposed system consists of three main components:10
3.2.1 Vehicle nodes. Vehicles equipped with communication devices to interact with other vehicles and roadside devices.
3.2.2 Roadside unit (rsu). A fixed infrastructure point that facilitates communication between the vehicle and the central
control system.
3.2.3 Central control unit (ccsu). A centralized system that processes data from vehicles and RSUs to manage traffic flow
and provide real-time updates.
3.3 Mobility models
The system uses six mobility models to simulate realistic vehicle movements and network and roadway topology changes:
3.3.1 Graph-based mobility model (gbmm). The GBMM introduces geospatial constraints through a graph structure
representing roads and intersections. Vehicles randomly choose their destination and travel along the shortest path at a
constant speed, but do not consider acceleration or deceleration phases 9.
3.3.2 Smooth movement model (smm). The SMM ensures a smooth transition of speed and direction by calculating the
future state using the current speed and direction. It avoids abrupt changes and provides a more realistic model of vehicle
movement9.
3.3.3 Fluid traffic model (ftm). The Fluid Traffic Model (FTM) treats the traffic flow as a continuous fluid, with vehicle
speeds decreasing as traffic density increases. The model captures the macroscopic dynamics of traffic flow and is suitable
for large-scale vehicle networks9.
3.3.4 Intelligent driver model (IDM). The IDM takes into account the interactions between vehicles and adjusts the speed
based on the behavior of the vehicle ahead. The model includes acceleration and deceleration behaviors and is therefore
suitable for real driving simulations9.3.3.5. IDM with intersection management (IDM-IM). IDM-IM extends IDM to
incorporate traffic signal management at intersections, allowing speed to be adjusted according to traffic signal status9.
3.3.5 IDM with lane change function (IDM-LC). IDM-LC adds lane changing behavior to IDM, which is critical for multi-
lane scenarios and analyzing the impact of lane changing on traffic flow and network performance 9.
3.4 Traffic signal control
The system includes a traffic signal control component that manages the speed of vehicles at intersections based on real-
time traffic conditions (generated by func_ryg.m) 9.
3.5 Simulation and modeling tools
The system is modeled and simulated using MATLAB and Simulink. The main parameters and settings include:
 Simulation time: 1000 seconds
 Time step size: 0.3 seconds
 Number of vehicles: 2000
 Traffic Signal Duration: Green: 60 seconds, Yellow: 10 seconds, Red: 70 seconds.
3.6 Implementation
The implementation process involves several MATLAB scripts and functions to simulate vehicle traffic and network
performance9:
3.6.1 Traffic Light Sequence Generation (func_ryg.m). The func_ryg.m script generates traffic light sequences for different
roadway segments based on the duration of red, yellow, and green lights. The algorithm calculates the traffic light status
for each time step and assigns it to the corresponding road segment. This is used to realistically simulate the effect of traffic
lights on vehicle behavior.
 Algorithm Description:
Input: time step, delay between traffic signals, red light duration, yellow light duration, green light duration.

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 Output: Traffic signal status for each road section.
Steps:
1. Initialize the array for each road section.
2. Determine the signal status (green, yellow or red) for each time step based on the current time and the duration
of each signal.
3. repeat the above process for each road segment, adjusting the delay between successive road segments.
3.6.2 Vehicle Density and Speed Simulation (main1.m). The main1.m script uses different traffic models to simulate the
relationship between vehicle density and speed, and vehicle density and flow. It calculates the average speed and flow rate
of vehicles based on different traffic density scenarios and visualizes these relationships.
 Algorithm Description:
Input: traffic density values.
Output: Average speed and flow rate for different traffic densities.
Steps:
1. Define a range of traffic densities.
2. Calculate speed using different models.
3. plot the relationship between density and speed/flow.
3.6.3 Vehicle Movement and Communication Simulation (main2.m). The main2.m script simulates vehicle movement and
communication processes, including the effects of speed, acceleration, traffic lights and road conditions on vehicle
movement behavior. It incorporates the traffic light sequences generated by func_ryg.m and simulates the behavior of each
vehicle as it moves through the road network.
 Algorithm Description:
Inputs: simulation time, time step, number of vehicles, traffic signal duration.
Output: Vehicle position, speed and connection probability.
Steps:
1. Initialize the simulation parameters and traffic light sequence.
2. simulate movement for each vehicle based on traffic light status and vehicle interaction.
3. calculate vehicle position, speed and distance.
4. analyze the connection probability based on vehicle spacing.
3.6.4 Simulation Results Analysis (compared.m). The compared.m script loads the simulation results and generates
histograms and graphs showing the vehicle spacing and connection probability. It helps to understand the distribution of
vehicle spacing and the probability of maintaining communication connectivity under different traffic conditions.
 Algorithm Description:
Input: simulation result file.
Output: Histograms and graphs of vehicle spacing and connection probability.
Steps:
1. Load the simulation results.
2. Generate a histogram of vehicle spacing.
3. Plot the connection probability based on the spacing data.

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 4. ANALYSIS AND SIMULATION RESULTS
4.1 Preliminary preparation and formula analysis
To begin with, our simulation results mainly concentrate on three different models which are Graphic-Based Mobility
Model (GBMM), Smooth Mobility Model (SMM) and Fluid Traffic Model (FTM). Each one of these models has its own
focus about some specific consideration, making them suitable for providing an essential theoretical basis for the design
and performance evaluation of VANET protocols.
In order to make the simulation more valid and accurate, we have to consider various factors to precisely. Firstly, we need
to reflect the road condition of the real world accurately. Secondly, we have to choose a suitable model which can correctly
show the moving patterns of vehicles.
To solve the former consideration, we have to take into account the driveways, intersections, speed limits and the minimum
safe distance between two cars. To maintain a safe distance, the velocity of cars can be calculated by this equation:
dsafe (t)−Vn−1 (t)×τ
Vsafe (t) = Vn−1 (t) + Vavg (1)
b(Vavg )+τ

for which, in any momentt, the velocities of two cars are

Vn and V n −1 .Therefor, if the safe distance is dsafe ( t ) , the
Vavg
relative safe velocity of the rear car should be Vsafe (t). Apart from that, is the average velocity of the front car and
b (Vavg )
. Besides,  is the reaction time of drivers, which is
Vavg
the rear car, and is the decelerating function based on
usually 1s~2s.
To solve the latter problem, we need to use the macroscopic mobile model which considers road topology as a network
diagram composed of streets in any direction and connected arbitrarily. The street between two corners is defined as a
block. Considering a group of vehicles on a block is one unit, where the vehicles share a set of parameters: speed v, traffic
density k, and traffic volume q=kv. Consequently, after we treating the traffic flow as a fluid, the relationship between
velocity and traffic density is given by the equation:
dv ∂k
= −c 2 k n (2)
dt ∂x

Solving this differential equation, we can get:

(n+1)/2
ckjam k
(1 − ( )(n+1)/2 ), n ≠ −1
n+1 kjam
v={ (3)
kjam
clog⁡ , n = −1
k

and kjam is the traffic density when v=0. Subsequently when k=0, we can have
(n+7/2
ckjam
v0 = (4)
n+1

and by11, the volume of the fluid of the traffic is:

k
v0 k(1 − ( )(n+1)/2 ) , n ≠ −1
kjam
q={ kjam
(5)
cklog⁡ , n = −1
k

Using the mentioned model to build a new dynamic model which links velocity and traffic density, we set:
Kjam = 250 cars/km (0.25cars/m) (6)
and when the parameter n changes, we can get the result of different models, which n=1 is the Greenshield model or Linear
model, n=1/2 is the Greenberg model and When n∈ [-1/2, 1/2] is the Drew model. Hence, the corresponding traffic speed
and density have the following expressions:

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 (n+1)/2
ckjam k ckjam k
v= (1 − ( )(n+1)/2 ) = (1 − ) (7)
n+1 kjam 2 kjam

k
q = v0 k(1 − ) (8)
kjam

Eventually, we have to think about how to construct the road and how to design the route for every individual car. To make
it more reliable, we use the idea in12 to construct the road which is shown below:

Figure 2. Proposed road condition

The Figure 2 shows what the established road condition looks like in our simulation.
After forming the road, for every road segment, we use random model to separate the traffic in a straight road at the
intersection. This separation of vehicles means that cars will probably enter another segment after the intersection.
Meanwhile, it is also possible for traffic moving from the vertical road entering the straight road. Thus, we use random
process analysis, assuming that every car has 50% possibility to keep going forward, while it also has 25% probability to
turn left or right, and this probability satisfies the Poisson distribution.
4.2 Summary of the preparation
In conclusion, the advantages of this model are that Macroscopically, it considers the traffic density at a random prospective,
and microscopically, it takes into account the relative velocity between vehicles with the introduction of driver’s reaction
time. Hence, this model is closer to what it looks like in the real world. When doing the VANET simulation, we can treat
every traffic fluid within one segment as one cluster, so when a car takes a turn, it can be recognised as disconnected with
the network of that cluster, while new connection with this cluster is built when new cars enter this road section. Overall,
this simulation can analyse the connectivity between nodes more accurately.
4.3 Simulation results analysis
The Figure 3 illustrates the simulation results of the three models, and Kjam in this Figure is the traffic density under a
congestive road. In this graph, we can see that the average velocity increases when Kjam increases, which is concordant
with the result in9 This result seems to be quite abnormal, but it is because when the number of vehicles rises, the distance
between them will decrease. In order to maintain the minimum safety distance, cars will decelerate or accelerate to prevent
crashing with others, forming a dynamic balance. Furthermore, because we need to sum up the velocity in the end in order
to calculate the average velocity, so we need to take the absolute value of each velocity, because velocity is a vector and
we do not want velocities of cars moving in opposite direction to cancel out. Therefore, when Kjam increases, cars’
velocities vary frequently, causing their aggregate velocity to increase, and so do average velocity. Moreover, taking the
equation:
n(x+Δx,t)
v(x, t) = vf(1 − ) (9)
kj

in3, we get the simulation result of the relative velocity of different cars.
Subsequently, Figure 4 shows how the velocity of a car which is trying to maintain the dynamic balance fluctuates, while
the front car is undergoing uniform motion, and the distance between these two cars. These Figures are important when
considering how cars manoeuvre within a VANET.
Figure 5 and Figure 6 display the simulation results of vehicles in front of traffic lights. It is obvious that when the light is
red, the front car decelerates until it is fully stopped, and the following car will also decelerate subsequently and gradually.
Meanwhile, the distance between these two cars also decreases until the light turns green. Afterwards, the front car
accelerates, and the second car increases its speed correspondingly, causing the distance between them to increase.

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 Figure 3. Simulation result of average velocity against Kjam Figure 4. Simulation result of dynamic balance between vehicles

Figure 5. distance variation between 2 cars Figure 6. distance between 2 cars in front of traffic lights

4.4 Connectivity between cars

Based on the results provided above, it is possible for us to investigate the robustness of the VANET. In the following
simulation, we assign a maximum communication radius r to every vehicle, for which if the distance between two
automobiles is shorter than r, these two cars are able to connect with each other and sent data mutually.

Figure 7. connection number against distance Figure 8. connection probability against distance
Figure 7 and Figure 8 show that the longer the distance between two cars, the lower the connectivity is. This is because
the signal strength deteriorates over longer distance, resulting in the poor connectivity and larger time delay, and this time
delay will significantly reduce the reliability of the whole network.

5. DISCUSSION
Overall, it is clear that the distance between vehicles is a vital factor that we need to consider about when investigating the
robustness of the network, and the three models we analysed can be useful in this regard. Thus, researching on these models
can be useful for numerous other experiments about VANET. Take the proposed system in 13 as an example. According to
the latest regulation, the maximum allowed latency for package delivery is 25ms.
Figure 9 is the Latency and Reliability of 12KB payload for traditional and proposed schemes under varying total network
background traffic provided by13. It is clear that the delay increases with the total background traffic, and the delay exceeds

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the maximum allowed delay of 25ms when the total background traffic is over 0.8GB/s. This phenomenon can be detailly
explained by introducing the model we discussed above. When the number of automobiles in the road section increases,
there will be a considerable amount of increase in the network burden, because cars will accelerate and decelerate to
maintain the dynamic balance, and the distance between cars varies frequently. This results in that sometimes, the distance
between cars is lower than the cars’ communication distance r, so they can build connections, but sometimes the distance
is too far for them to be connected together. Hence, cars need to send and receive connection establishment requests
repeatedly, causing the network load to boost and the network resources are wasted.

Figure 9. Latency and Reliability of 12KB payload for traditional and proposed schemes under varying total network background traffic
In short, the studying of these mobility model can be used to evaluate and analyse the reliability and robustness of protocols
of the network, helping the network designer to choose the most suitable model to estimate the performance of the network
by constructing a more realistic simulation environment.

6. SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK

6.1 Enhanced communication protocols
Minimizing communication latency is crucial for real-time decision-making in connected and autonomous vehicles
(CAVs). Current C-V2X protocols must evolve to meet the stringent latency requirements of safety-critical applications.
Future work should focus on optimizing data transmission pathways and employing advanced data compression techniques
to reduce delays. Leveraging edge computing can significantly decrease latency by processing data closer to the source
rather than relying on centralized cloud servers. Additionally, exploring new modulation and coding schemes that enable
faster data rates and lower latency will be essential. Ensuring that C-V2X systems can respond promptly to dynamic driving
conditions is vital for enhancing road safety and traffic efficiency.
6.1.1. Latency reduction. One of the critical challenges for C-V2X is minimizing communication latency to support real-
time decision-making in CAVs. Future work should focus on developing more efficient communication protocols that can
operate within the stringent latency requirements of safety-critical applications.
6.1.2. Network congestion management. As the number of connected vehicles increases, so does the risk of network
congestion. Research into advanced congestion control algorithms and dynamic spectrum management techniques is
crucial to maintaining reliable communication under high traffic conditions.
6.2 Improved security measures
6.2.1 Robust authentication mechanisms: Ensuring the authenticity of messages exchanged in a C-V2X network is
paramount. Future work should explore more sophisticated cryptographic techniques and decentralized authentication
frameworks to prevent unauthorized access and spoofing attacks.
6.2.2 Privacy Preservation: Protecting the privacy of vehicle occupants and pedestrians is a growing concern. Research
should be directed towards developing privacy-preserving communication protocols that can secure personal data without
compromising the functionality of C-V2X systems.
6.3 Integration with emerging technologies
6.3.1 5G and beyond: The integration of C-V2X with 5G and future cellular technologies promises enhanced bandwidth,
lower latency, and greater reliability. Future work should investigate the seamless integration of C-V2X with these
emerging technologies to leverage their full capabilities.

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6.3.2 Artificial intelligence and machine learning: AI and ML can significantly enhance the performance of C-V2X systems
by enabling predictive analytics, adaptive communication strategies, and autonomous decision-making. Research should
focus on incorporating AI/ML techniques into C-V2X architectures to improve system efficiency and resilience.
6.3.3 Internet of things (IoT): The convergence of C-V2X and IoT can create a comprehensive ecosystem for smart
transportation. Future work should explore the integration of C-V2X with IoT devices and platforms to enable seamless
communication and data sharing across the transportation infrastructure.
6.4 Standardization and interoperability
6.4.1 Global standardization: The development of global standards for C-V2X is crucial for ensuring interoperability across
different regions and manufacturers. Future work should contribute to the efforts of standardization bodies such as 3GPP
and IEEE to create universally accepted protocols and specifications.
6.4.2 Cross-industry collaboration: Collaboration between automotive, telecommunications, and technology industries is
essential for the successful deployment of C-V2X solutions. Future work should focus on fostering partnerships and
collaborative research initiatives to address common challenges and accelerate the development of interoperable solutions.

7. CONCLUSIONS
C-V2X technology holds great promise for the future of connected and autonomous vehicles. However, realizing its full
potential requires addressing several critical challenges through focused research and development. By enhancing
communication protocols, improving security measures, integrating with emerging technologies, and fostering
standardization efforts, the C-V2X ecosystem can be significantly strengthened. These suggestions for future work aim to
guide researchers, industry stakeholders, and policymakers in advancing C-V2X solutions towards a safer, more efficient,
and interconnected transportation system.

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