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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Art & Culture

Lecture - 02
Architecture
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Architecture
Indo-Islamic Architecture:
 Trabeate + Arcuade:
 Combination of trabeate (horizontal beam and lintel construction) and arcuade (arched or arcuate
elements).
 This fusion reflects a synthesis of pre-existing Indian architectural styles with Islamic influences.
 Use of Dome, Arch, Mortar:
 Prominent use of domes and arches in architectural structures.
 Effective use of mortar for construction, allowing for the creation of more complex and intricate designs.
 Minars:
 Inclusion of minarets, tall towers often associated with mosques, providing a distinctive vertical element
to the architecture.
 Minarets are used for the call to prayer (Adhan).
 Avoidance of Human and Animal Figures:
 Generally, a reluctance to depict human and animal figures in architectural ornamentation.
 Islamic tradition tends to discourage the representation of living beings in religious contexts.
 Introduction of Spaciousness, Massiveness, and Breadth:
 Indo-Islamic architecture is characterized by its spacious designs, massive structures, and a sense of
breadth in the layout.
 Large courtyards and open spaces are often integrated into the design.
 Use of Calligraphy:
 Extensive use of calligraphy as a decorative element.
 Quranic verses and other Islamic inscriptions are often inscribed on walls and domes.

Additional Information: Calligraphy Pic

Source: NCERT
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 Arabesque:
 Incorporation of arabesque patterns, which are intricate, flowing designs based on geometric and floral
elements.
 Jaali Works:
 Intricate lattice or jaali works in windows and screens, allowing light and air while maintaining privacy.
 Adds a decorative and functional aspect to the architecture.
Additional Information: Jaali Works Picture (Source: NCERT)

 Use of Water:
 Integration of water features such as fountains, pools, and reflecting pools within the premises.
 Water is often used for aesthetic and cooling purposes.
 Charbagh Style of Gardening:
 Implementation of the Charbagh (fourfold) style of gardening, characterized by a quadrilateral layout
with a central fountain or pool.
 Reflects symmetry and order in the design.
 Foreshortening Technique:
 Use of foreshortening techniques in paintings and architectural ornamentation.
 This technique involves depicting objects or elements in a way that shortens the perceived depth.
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Slave Dynasty:
 Nature: Primarily involved in remodeling and extending existing structures.
 Notable Features: Limited original architectural innovations; focused on adapting and enhancing pre-
existing structures.
Khilji Dynasty:
 Use of Red Sandstone: Prominent use of red sandstone in construction.
 Arcuade Style: Emphasis on the arcuate (arched) style in architecture.
 Mortar: Increased use of mortar in construction.
Tughlaq Dynasty:
 Grey Sandstone: Preferred material for construction.
 Strength over Decoration: Focus on the strength and durability of the buildings rather than intricate
decoration.
 "Batter": Inclined or sloping sides of the walls for stability.
Sayyid Dynasty:
 Octagonal Buildings: Introduction of octagonal-shaped buildings in architectural designs.
 Architectural Innovation: A shift towards original architectural styles.
Lodhi Dynasty:
 Tombs in Gardens: Tombs often constructed within gardens, reflecting a harmonious integration of
architecture with nature.
 Double Dome: Use of double domes in some structures.
 Lack of Lavish Decorations: Minimalistic approach with a focus on simplicity; less emphasis on lavish
decorations compared to previous dynasties.
Mughals:
 Humayun:
 Deenpanah: A city founded by Humayun, now known as Delhi, served as a refuge for him after his exile
and return.
 Sher Shah Suri:
 Old Fort (Purana Qila): Constructed during the reign of Sher Shah Suri, this fort is a significant
historical structure.
 Sher Mandal: A double-storeyed octagonal tower within the Old Fort.
 Rohtas Fort: A fort built by Sher Shah Suri in present-day Pakistan.
 Grand Trunk Road (GT Road): Constructed by Sher Shah Suri, it remains a major road artery in South
Asia.
 Qila-i-e-Quhunah (Mosque of the Old Fort): A mosque within the Old Fort complex.
 Akbar:
 Akbar's architecture featured the use of the Tudor arch, a four-centered arch.
 Many of Akbar's structures, including Agra Fort, were built using red sandstone.
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Buildings at Fatehpur Sikri:

 Buland Darwaza:
 An imposing 40-meter red sandstone structure.
 Built in 1601 to commemorate Akbar's victory over Gujarat.
 It is one of the highest gateways in the world and is known for its grandeur and intricate carvings.
 Salim Chisti’s Tomb:
 A white marble tomb of the Sufi saint Salim Chisti.
 Located within the Jama Masjid complex in Fatehpur Sikri.
 Known for its architectural beauty and considered a pilgrimage site.
 Panch Mahal:
 A five-storied pavilion with decreasing floor sizes as it goes up.
 It was likely used for entertainment and relaxation.
 The name "Panch Mahal" translates to "Five Palaces."
 Jodha Bai’s Palace (Mariam-uz-Zamani’s Palace):
 A palace believed to be for Akbar's wife, Jodha Bai, also known as Mariam-uz-Zamani.
 Reflects a blend of Rajput and Mughal architectural styles.
 Features courtyards, terraces, and intricate designs.
 Ibadat Khana - Hall of Prayer or Debating Hall:
 Constructed by Akbar as a space for religious discussions and debates.
 Reflects Akbar's interest in promoting religious tolerance and understanding.
 Pachisi Court:
 A courtyard where Akbar is said to have played the game of Pachisi (a precursor to modern-day Ludo).
 The courtyard is marked with a large board for the game.
Jahangir:
 Akbar's Tomb in Sikandra: Jahangir completed the construction of Akbar's tomb in Sikandra, near Agra.
 Tomb in Lahore: Jahangir built his own tomb in Lahore, showcasing a blend of Persian and Mughal
architectural styles.
 Moti Masjid at Lahore: The Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) in Lahore is a white marble mosque built by
Jahangir.
 Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah: This tomb, located in Agra, was commissioned by Nur Jahan, Jahangir's wife.
It is often referred to as the "Baby Taj" due to its similarities with the Taj Mahal.
Shah Jahan:
 Taj Mahal: One of the most famous and iconic structures in the world, the Taj Mahal was commissioned by
Shah Jahan in memory of his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal.
 Features of Taj Mahal:
 Use of calligraphy.
 Pietra dura works (inlay of semi-precious stones into marble).
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 Foreshortening technique in its design.

 Charbagh-style gardens, reflecting symmetry and order.
 Extensive use of water in the premises for decoration, including reflective pools.
 Unique Features:
 Lace-like and extremely fine jaali work.
 Low-relief carvings on the marble.
 Red Fort in Delhi: Commissioned by Shah Jahan, the Red Fort in Delhi served as the main residence of the
Mughal emperors for nearly 200 years. It is known for its red sandstone walls and intricate design.
 Jama Masjid in Delhi: One of the largest mosques in India, the Jama Masjid in Delhi was also commissioned
by Shah Jahan. It is a magnificent example of Mughal architecture.
 Shalimar Bagh in Lahore: Shah Jahan commissioned the Shalimar Bagh, a Mughal garden in Lahore, known
for its terraced levels, flowing water, and fountains.
 City of Shahjahanabad: Shah Jahan established the city of Shahjahanabad, now known as Old Delhi, which
served as the capital of the Mughal Empire during his reign. It is characterized by the Red Fort, Jama Masjid,
and the bustling markets of Chandni Chowk.
Aurangzeb:
 Decline in Mughal Architecture: Aurangzeb, known for his austere lifestyle, had a less favorable attitude
towards the arts and architecture compared to his predecessors.
 The decline in Mughal architecture during his reign is attributed to his focus on military campaigns and
frugality.
Muhammad Azam Shah:
 Last Architectural Constructions: Muhammad Azam Shah, the son of Aurangzeb, was the last Mughal
emperor known to undertake architectural constructions.
 Biwi-ka-Maqbara: Also known as the "Poor Man's Taj" or "Dakkhani Taj," it is located in Aurangabad
and was built by Azam Shah in memory of his mother, Begum Rabia Durani.
 The mausoleum's design is reminiscent of the Taj Mahal but on a smaller and less elaborate scale.
 Zinat Mahal in Delhi: Muhammad Azam Shah also constructed Zinat Mahal in Delhi, dedicated to his wife.
Like Biwi-ka-Maqbara, it reflects architectural influences from the earlier Mughal period.
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Sculpture:

Buddhism and Jainism:

Buddhism Jainism

 God: Buddhism is generally non-theistic. While  God: Jainism is also non-theistic. While it
some Buddhist traditions recognize celestial recognizes divine beings or Tirthankaras
beings, there is no supreme, creator God in the (spiritual teachers who attain enlightenment), they
traditional sense. are not creators or rulers of the universe.
 Soul: Buddhism rejects the concept of an  Soul: Jainism accepts the existence of a soul
eternal, unchanging soul (atman). Instead, it (jiva), but it is distinct from the concept of a
teaches the doctrine of anatta (non-self), creator God. The soul, in Jainism, is characterized
emphasizing the impermanence and by consciousness and infinite potential for
interconnectedness of all phenomena. liberation.
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 Rebirth: Buddhism accepts the concept of  Rebirth: Jainism believes in the cycle of rebirth
rebirth (samsara), but the process is not driven (samsara) and karma, similar to Buddhism.
by an eternal soul. Instead, it is determined by Liberation (moksha) is achieved by breaking the
karma, the law of cause and effect. cycle of birth and death.
 Caste System: Buddhism rejects the caste  Caste System: Jainism, like Buddhism, opposes
system prevalent in ancient Indian society. the caste system. It emphasizes spiritual qualities
Buddha advocated for a path to enlightenment and practices rather than social status.
that is open to people of all social classes.

Buddhism:
 Three Gems of Buddhism:
 Buddha (The Enlightened One): It refers to Siddhartha Gautama, the historical Buddha, who attained
enlightenment under the Bodhi tree. Buddhists take refuge in the Buddha as a guide and example.
 Dhamma (The Teachings): It represents the body of teachings attributed to the Buddha, encapsulating
ethical and philosophical principles. The Dhamma guides followers on the path towards enlightenment.
 Sangha (The Community): It refers to the monastic community of Buddhist monks and nuns. Lay
practitioners can also be part of the Sangha. It provides support and a community for those following the
Buddhist path.
 Four Noble Truths:
 The Truth of Suffering (Dukkha): It acknowledges the existence of suffering, unsatisfactoriness, and
discontent in life.
 The Truth of the Cause of Suffering (Samudaya): It identifies craving (tanha) and attachment as the
root causes of suffering. The cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara) is perpetuated by these cravings.
 The Truth of the End of Suffering (Nirodha): It asserts that there is a way to end suffering, known as
Nirvana. It involves overcoming craving and attachment, leading to liberation from the cycle of rebirth.
 The Truth of the Path that Frees Us from Suffering (Magga): It describes the Eightfold Path as the
way to end suffering.
 The Eightfold Path includes Right Understanding, Right Intention, Right Speech, Right Action,
Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration.
Buddhism-Terms:
 Nirvana:
 Buddhism defines Nirvana as being free from desire, pain, pleasure, etc. It is like the extinction of flame.
 In Buddhist traditions, nirvana is often described as the extinction of three fires- greed (raga), aversion
(dwesha), and ignorance (moksha).
 When these flames are extinguished, the cycle of rebirth is skipped.
 Parivrajaka:
 It means renunciation and wanderer.
 Ajita Keshkambalin, Makhkhali Goshala, Gauthama Buddha, and Vardhamana Mahavira are a few well-
known examples of Parivrajaka.
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 Shramanas:
 They were ascetics, and monks of various sects.
 They renounced worldly life to search for the truth about life and the universe.
 Upasakas:
 Lay followers of Buddhism were known as Upsakas or Upasikas.
 This title is used for the followers of Buddhism who were not monks, nuns and took certain vows.
 Schism:
 After the 2nd Buddhist council in Vaishali (Bihar), first schism took place in Buddhism and it got
bifurcated into two factions Sthaviravada and Mahasanghika.
 These two factions became the basis of Hinayana (The lesser vehicle) and Mahayana (The greater vehicle)
respectively in future.
 During the fourth Buddhist council at Kashmir a second schism took place and Mahayana & Hinyana came
into being.
 Hinayana followers stayed true to Buddha’s teaching/Original teachings, and never practiced idol worship,
and Mahayana followers started believing in the heavenliness of Buddha and idol worship in Buddhism began.
 Mahayana Buddhism was very much influenced by Hinduism.
 In fact, the deification of Buddha by Mahasanghika fostered Mahayana Buddhism. They attributed divinity to
Buddha and worship of Buddha in statue form started.
 Mahasanghika was further subdivided into lokottarvadin, kavya variks, kaukkitikas.
 Mahasanghika Subdivisions:
 Lokottarvadin: A subdivision of Mahasanghika, their philosophy was based on the concept of Lokottara
Buddha or Supernatural Buddha.
 Other sects of Buddhism are:
 Sautrantika: The Sautrantika school of thought is considered to have originated from a fusion of the
Sarvastivadin and Sammitiya traditions.
 Concept of Bodhisattva:
 Definition: A Bodhisattva, in literal terms, is a living being (Sattva) who aspires to attain enlightenment
(Bodhi).
 Central to Mahayana Buddhism: The concept of Bodhisattva is particularly central to the Mahayana
sect of Buddhism.
 Compassion: The greatest characteristic of a Bodhisattva is compassion. This involves an empathetic
sharing of the sufferings of others.
 Delay in Personal Salvation: A Bodhisattva chooses to postpone achieving personal salvation (Nirvana)
to help others on the same path.
Jainism:
 Five Great Vows in Jainism: Jainism emphasizes a moral and ethical code of conduct through the observance
of five great vows, known as "Mahavratas":
 Satya (Truth): Practicing truthfulness in thoughts, words, and actions.
 Ahimsa (Non-violence): Committing to non-violence and avoiding harm to all living beings.
 Asteya (Do not steal): Refraining from taking anything that is not willingly given.
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 Aparigraha (Do not acquire property): Practicing non-attachment to material possessions and
avoiding accumulation of unnecessary wealth.
 Brahmacharya (Observe continence/Celibacy): Maintaining celibacy and abstaining from sensual
pleasures.
 Split in Jainism: The split in the Jain order resulted in two major sects with distinct practices:
 Digambara (Southerners):
 Bhadrabahu – Chandragupta Maurya – Samlekhna- Shravanbelgola: Bhadrabahu, a revered
Jain monk, is associated with Chandragupta Maurya's renunciation and the conduct of the Grand
Council (Samlekhana) at Shravanbelgola.
 Appearance: Digambara monks traditionally keep themselves naked, believing that shedding all
material possessions includes clothing. Female monks wear unstitched, plain white sarees.
 Adherence to Vows: Digambar monks adhere to all five great vows.
 Women's Liberation: Digambara tradition holds that women cannot attain liberation in their
current female form.
 Svetambara (Northerners):
 Sthulbhadra: Sthulbhadra, a prominent figure, played a role in the division of the Jain community
during a 12-year famine in Magadha.
 Appearance: Svetambara monks wear white clothing, symbolizing purity.
 Adherence to Vows: Svetambara monks follow four great vows, excluding 'Brahmacharya.'
 Women's Liberation: The Svetambara tradition allows women to attain liberation.
 Branch within Svetambara Jainism - "Sthanakvasi":
 "Sthanakvasi" is a sect within Svetambara Jainism that was initiated in 1653 AD by a merchant
named Lavaji.
 This sect emphasizes staying in a standing posture (Sthanak) during prayers rather than using
an idol or image.
 Doctrine of Anekantavada:
 Anekantavada is the doctrine of plurality in Jainism, emphasizing the multifaceted and complex nature
of reality.
 It recognizes that reality can be perceived and understood from multiple perspectives, and no single point
of view can fully encapsulate the entirety of truth.
 This doctrine encourages tolerance, respect for diverse viewpoints, and an awareness that ultimate truth
may be beyond the grasp of any singular perspective.
 Syadvada:
 Syadvada is the doctrine that all judgments are conditional and may be true only in certain conditions,
circumstances, or senses.
 The term "Syat" ("may be") is used to express the conditional nature of statements.
 This concept aligns with the Anekantavada doctrine, recognizing the limitations of human understanding
and language in describing the complexity of reality.
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 Asrav:
 Asrav refers to the inflow of Karmas to the soul in Jain philosophy.
 It describes the continuous influx of karmic particles into the soul due to the soul's activities and
interactions with the external world.
 Understanding and controlling the Asrav is crucial for spiritual progress and liberation (moksha).
 Samvara:
 Samvara means stoppage—the cessation or stoppage of the influx of material karmas into the soul
consciousness.
 Achieving Samvara is essential for halting the continuous accumulation of Karmas, allowing the soul to
attain a state of purity and liberation.
 Nirjara:
 Nirjara is the shedding or removal of accumulated karmas from the soul.
 It is a crucial aspect of the spiritual journey, as shedding karmas is necessary for breaking free from the
cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara) and achieving moksha, liberation.
 Through ascetic practices, self-discipline, and right conduct, an individual can undergo nirjara to purify
the soul.
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