Thermal Power Station (Steam Power Station):

 A generating station which converts heat energy of coal combustion into electrical energy
is known as a steam power station.
 A steam power station basically works on the Rankine cycle.
 Steam is produced in the boiler by utilizing the heat of coal combustion.
 The steam is then expanded in the prime mover (i.e., steam turbine) and is condensed in a
condenser to be fed into the boiler again.
 The steam turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy of the turbine
into electrical energy.
 This type of power station is suitable where coal and water are available in abundance and
a large amount of electric power is to be generated.
Advantages:
(i) The fuel (i.e., coal) used is quite cheap.
(ii) Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.
(iii) It can be installed at any place irrespective of the existence of coal. The coal can be trans
ported to the site of the plant by rail or road.
(iv) It requires less space as compared to the hydroelectric power station.
(v) The cost of generation is lesser than that of the diesel power station.
Disadvantages:
(i) It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount of smoke and fumes.
(ii) It is costlier in running cost as compared to hydroelectric plant
Block Diagram Representation of Thermal Power Plant:
The schematic arrangement of a modern steam power station is shown in figure. The whole
arrangement can be divided into the following stages for the sake of simplicity:
1. Coal and ash handling arrangement
2. Steam generating plant
3. Steam turbine
4. Alternator
5. Feed water
6. Cooling arrangement
Coal and ash handling plant:
 The coal is transported to the power station by road or rail and is stored in the coal storage
plant.
 Storage of coal is primarily a matter of protection against coal strikes, failure of
transportation system and general coal shortages.
 From the coal storage plant, coal is delivered to the coal handling plant where it is
pulverised (i.e., crushed into small pieces) in order to increase its surface exposure, thus
promoting rapid combustion without using large quantity of excess air.
 The pulverised coal is fed to the boiler by belt conveyors.
 The coal is burnt in the boiler and the ash produced after the complete combustion of coal
is removed to the ash handling plant and then delivered to the ash storage plant for disposal.
 The removal of the ash from the boiler furnace is necessary for proper burning of coal.
 In fact, in a thermal station, about 50% to 60% of the total operating cost consists of fuel
purchasing and its handling.
Steam generating plant:
The steam generating plant consists of a boiler for the production of steam and other auxiliary
equipment for the utilisation of flue gases.
(i) Boiler:
 The heat of combustion of coal in the boiler is utilised to convert water into steam at high
temperature and pressure.
 The flue gases from the boiler make their journey through super heater, economiser, air
pre-heater and are finally exhausted to atmosphere through the chimney.
(ii) Superheater:
 The steam produced in the boiler is wet and is passed through a superheater where it is
dried and superheated (i.e., steam temperature increased above that of boiling point of
water) by the flue gases on their way to chimney.
 Superheating provides two principal benefits. Firstly, the overall efficiency is increased.
Secondly, too much condensation in the last stages of turbine (which would cause blade
corrosion) is avoided.
 The superheated steam from the superheater is fed to steam turbine through the main valve.
(iii) Economiser:
 An economiser is essentially a feed water heater and derives heat from the flue gases for
this purpose.
 The feed water is fed to the economiser before supplying to the boiler. The economiser
extracts a part of heat of flue gases to increase the feed water temperature.
(iv) Air preheater:
 An air preheater increases the temperature of the air supplied for coal burn ing by deriving
heat from flue gases.
 Air is drawn from the atmosphere by a forced draught fan and is passed through air
preheater before supplying to the boiler furnace.
 The air preheater extracts heat from flue gases and increases the temperature of air used
for coal combustion.
Steam turbine:
 The dry and superheated steam from the superheater is fed to the steam turbine through
main valve.
 The heat energy of steam when passing over the blades of turbine is converted into
mechanical energy.
 After giving heat energy to the turbine, the steam is exhausted to the condenser which
condenses the exhausted steam by means of cold-water circulation.
Alternator:
 The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator.
 The alternator converts mechanical energy of turbine into electrical energy.
 The electrical output from the alternator is delivered to the bus bars through transformer,
circuit breakers and isolators.
Feed water:
 The condensate from the condenser is used as feed water to the boiler. Some water may be
lost in the cycle which is suitably made up from external source.
 The feed water on its way to the boiler is heated by water heaters and economiser. This
helps in raising the overall efficiency of the plant.
Cooling arrangement:
 In order to improve the efficiency of the plant, the steam exhausted from the turbine is
condensed by means of a condenser.
 Water is drawn from a natural source of supply such as a river, canal or lake and is
circulated through the condenser.
 The circulating water takes up the heat of the exhausted steam and itself becomes hot.
 This hot water coming out from the condenser is discharged at a suitable location down the
river.
 In case the availability of water from the source of supply is not assured throughout the
year, cooling towers are used.
Choice of Site for Steam Power Stations
In order to achieve overall economy, the following points should be considered while selecting a
site for a steam power station :
(i) Supply of fuel:
 The steam power station should be located near the coal mines so that transportation cost
of fuel is minimum.
(ii) Availability of water:
 As huge amount of water is required for the condenser, therefore, such a plant should be
located at the bank of a river or near a canal to ensure the continuous supply of water.
(iii) Transportation facilities:
 A modern steam power station often requires the transportation of material and machinery.
Therefore, adequate transportation facilities must exist i.e., the plant should be well
connected to other parts of the country by rail, road. etc.
(iv) Cost and type of land:
 The steam power station should be located at a place where land is cheap and further
extension, if necessary, is possible. Moreover, the bearing capacity of the ground should be
adequate so that heavy equipment could be installed.
(v) Nearness to load centres:
 In order to reduce the transmission cost, the plant should be located near the centre of the
load.It is possible to install the plant away from the load centres, provided other conditions
are favourable.
(vi) Distance from populated area:
 As huge amount of coal is burnt in a steam power station, therefore, smoke and fumes
pollute the surrounding area. This necessitates that the plant should be located at a
considerable distance from the populated areas.
Hydro-electric Power Station:
 A generating station which utilises the potential energy of water at a high level for the
generation of electrical energy is known as a hydro-electric power station.
 Hydro-electric power stations are generally located in hilly areas where dams can be built
conveniently and large water reservoirs can be obtained.
 In a hydro-electric power station, water head is created by constructing a dam across a river
or lake.
 From the dam, water is led to a water turbine.
 The water turbine captures the energy in the falling water and changes the hydraulic energy
into mechanical energy at the turbine shaft.
 The turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
 Hydro-electric power stations are becoming very popular because the reserves of fuels (i.e.,
coal and oil) are depleting day by day.
 They have the added importance for flood control, storage of water for irrigation and water
for drink ing purposes.
Advantages:
(i) It requires no fuel as water is used for the generation of electrical energy.
(ii) It is quite neat and clean as no smoke or ash is produced.
(iii) It requires very small running charges because water is the source of energy which is
available free of cost.
(iv) It is comparatively simple in construction and requires less maintenance.
(v) It does not require a long starting time like a steam power station.
(vi) It is robust and has a longer life.
(vii) Such plants serve many purposes. In addition to the generation of electrical energy, they
also help in irrigation and controlling floods.
(viii) Although such plants require the attention of highly skilled persons at the time of
construction, yet for operation, a few experienced persons may do the job well.
Disadvantages:
(i) It involves high capital cost due to construction of dam.
(ii) There is uncertainty about the availability of huge amount of water due to dependence on
weather conditions.
(iii) Skilled and experienced hands are required to build the plant.
(iv) It requires high cost of transmission lines as the plant is located in hilly areas which are
quite away from the consumers
Block Diagram Representation of Hydro Power Plants:
The sche matic arrangement of a modern hydro-electric plant is shown in figure.
 The dam is constructed across a river or lake and water from the catchment area collects at
the back of the dam to form a reservoir.
 A pressure tunnel is taken off from the reservoir and water brought to the valve house at
the start of the penstock.
  The valve house contains main sluice valves and automatic isolating valves.
 The former controls the water flow to the power house and the latter cuts off supply of
water when the penstock bursts.
 From the valve house, water is taken to water turbine through a huge steel pipe known as
penstock. The water turbine converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.
 The turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
 A surge tank (open from top) is built just before the valve house and protects the penstock
from bursting in case the turbine gates suddenly close due to electrical load being thrown
off.
 When the gates close, there is a sudden stopping of water at the lower end of the penstock
and consequently the penstock can burst like a paper log.
 The surge tank absorbs this pressure swing by increase in its level of water.
The constituents of a hydro-electric plant are:
(1) Hydraulic structures
(2) Water turbines
(3) Electrical equipment
Hydraulic Structures:
Hydraulic structures in a hydro-electric power station include dam, spillways, headworks, surge
tank, penstock and accessory works.
(i) Dam:
 A dam is a barrier which stores water and creates water head.
 Dams are built of concrete or stone masonary, earth or rock fill. The type and arrangement
depend upon the topography of the site.
(ii) Spillways
 There are times when the river flow exceeds the storage capacity of the reservoir. In order
to discharge the surplus water from the storage reservoir into the river on the down-stream
side of the dam, spillways are used.
 Spillways are constructed of concrete piers on the top of the dam.
  Gates are provided between these piers and surplus water is discharged over the crest of
the dam by opening these gates.
(iii) Headworks:
 The headworks consists of the diversion structures at the head of an intake.
 They generally include booms and racks for diverting floating debris, sluices for by-passing
debris and sediments and valves for controlling the flow of water to the turbine.
 The flow of water into and through headworks should be as smooth as possible to avoid
head loss and cavitation.
(iv) Surge tank:
 Open conduits leading water to the turbine require no protection. However, when closed
conduits are used, protection becomes necessary to limit the abnormal pressure in the
conduit. For this reason, closed conduits are always provided with a surge tank.
 A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank (open at the top) in which water level rises or falls
to reduce the pressure swings in the conduit.
 A surge tank is located near the beginning of the conduit.
 A surge tank overcomes the abnormal pressure in the conduit when load on the turbine falls
and acts as a reservoir during increase of load on the turbine.
(v) Penstocks:
 Penstocks are open or closed conduits which carry water to the turbines.
 They are generally made of reinforced concrete or steel.
 Concrete penstocks are suitable for low heads (< 30 m) as greater pressure causes rapid
deterioration of concrete.
 The steel pen stocks can be designed for any head; the thickness of the penstock increases
with the head or working pressure.
Water Turbines:
Water turbines are used to convert the energy of falling water into mechanical energy. The principal
types of water turbines are : (i) Impulse turbines (ii) Reaction turbines
(i) Impulse turbines:
 Such turbines are used for high heads.
 In an impulse turbine, the entire pressure of water is converted into kinetic energy in a
nozzle and the velocity of the jet drives the wheel.
(ii) Reaction turbines:
 Reaction turbines are used for low and medium heads.
 In a reaction turbine, water enters the runner partly with pressure energy and partly with
velocity head.
 The important types of reaction turbines are : (a) Francis turbines (b) Kaplan turbines
 A Francis turbine is used for low to medium heads.
 A Kaplan turbine is used for low heads and large quantities of water
Electrical Equipment:
The electrical equipment of a hydro-electric power station includes alternators, transformers,
circuit breakers and other switching and protective devices.
 Electrical Installation
Electrical installation is an assembly of equipments and components to reliably and safely
distribute and use Electrical Power.
Fuses:
 A fuse is a short piece of metal, inserted in the circuit, which melts when excessive current
flows through it and thus breaks the circuit.
 The fuse element is generally made of materials having low melting point, high
conductivity and least deterioration due to oxidation e.g., silver, copper etc.
 It is inserted in series with the circuit to be protected.
 Under normal operating conditions, the fuse element is at a temperature below its melting
point. Therefore, it carries the normal current without overheating. However, when a short-
circuit or overload occurs, the current through the fuse increases beyond its rated value.
This raises the temperature and fuse element melts (or blows out), disconnecting the circuit
protected by it.
 In this way, a fuse protects the machines and equipment from damage due to excessive
currents.
 The time required to blow out the fuse depends upon the magnitude of excessive current.
The greater the current, the smaller is the time taken by the fuse to blow out. In other words,
a fuse has inverse time-current characteristics.
Symbols for fuse:

IEC: International Electrotechnical Commission

IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
ANSI: American National Standards Institute
Advantages:
(i) It is the cheapest form of protection available.
(ii) It requires no maintenance.
(iii) Its operation is inherently completely automatic unlike a circuit breaker which requires an
elaborate equipment for automatic action.
(iv) It can break heavy short-circuit currents without noise or smoke.
(v) The smaller sizes of fuse element impose a current limiting effect under short-circuit
conditions.
(vi) The inverse time-current characteristic of a fuse makes it suitable for overcurrent
protection.
(vii) The minimum time of operation can be made much shorter than with the circuit breakers.
Disadvantages:
(i) Considerable time is lost in rewiring or replacing a fuse after operation.
 (ii) On heavy short-circuits, discrimination between fuses in series cannot be obtained unless
there is sufficient difference in the sizes of the fuses concerned.
(iii) The current-time characteristic of a fuse cannot always be co-related with that of the
protected apparatus.
MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker):
 An MCB is an automatically operated electrical switch. Miniature circuit breakers are
intended to prevent damage to an electrical circuit as a result of excess current. They are
designed to trip during an overload or short circuit to protect against electrical faults and
equipment failure.
 MCBs are widely used as isolating components in domestic, commercial, and industrial
settings. They form part of a broader family of more powerful circuit-breaking
components.

 Mini circuit breakers are triggered by overcurrent - electrical current that exceeds a
designated safe current and makes use of a relatively robust mechanical mechanism
designed to minimize failures and false alarms.
 Excess current causes the bimetallic strip within the MCB to heat, bend, and trip. This
releases a switch that moves the electrical contact points apart to confine the arc (electrical
discharge). The arc is divided and cooled by an insulated metal strip called the arc chute.
The contacts close again once the fault has been fixed and the MCBs are reset.
 An MCB is designed to protect against both overloading and short-circuiting. These are
detected differently using separate processes. Overload protection is provided by the
bimetallic strip using thermal operation, whereas short-circuit protection is provided by the
tripping coil via electro-magnetic operation.
 If the discharge is especially high, the MCB will trip (activate) very quickly – within one-
tenth of a second. When the overcurrent is closer to the safety limits, the component will
be slower to respond.
 Several different MCB types are available – types A, B, C, D, K, and Z. However, the three
key versions are type B, type C, and type D. Each is designed to be responsive to the likely
 strength of electrical surges in different settings. These variations are typically known as
their ‘trip curve’ but can also be known as their tripping characteristics or overcurrent
characteristics.
Difference between Fuse and MCB:
Category MCB Fuse
A circuit protection device that Protective device that self-destructs
Definition trips when there is excess current when the current surpasses a preset value
flow in the circuit
Dual mechanism based on both
Working Operates by utilizing the thermal
electromagnetic and thermal
mechanism properties of conducting materials
principles
Speed Slower Faster
Tripping Electromagnetic core with a
Metallic wires
element plunger arrangement
Reusability Usually, can be reused Usually, cannot be reused
Voltage Suitable for varying voltages from very
Low voltage circuit protection
Suitability low to very high
Lighting circuits, residential Wide range of applications from small
Applications setups, and some industrial electronic circuits to heavy-duty electric
systems motors
Cost More expensive Less expensive
Electrical Wires and Cables:
Wires:
 A wire is defined as one electrical conductor, while a cable is defined as a group of
individually insulated wires (conductors) encased together in sheathing.
 Sheathing is a non-conducting material with protective properties to shield the conducting
part of the wire/cable.
 Although wire is a good conductor, it can still have some resistance.
 Wires and cables can be made from various materials, such as copper, gold, and aluminum.
 The materials each have different resistances. Thick wire will have a lower resistance than
thin wire made from the same material.
 Resistance of the wire can change proportionally with change in temperature or length of
the wire.
 Wire size indicates the diameter of the metal conductor of the wire.
 When choosing the size of wire, you must consider the gauge of the wire, wire capacity,
and what the wire will be used for.
Types of Wires:
 The two categories of single-conductor wires are solid and stranded (also called braided).
 Solid wire is rigid and conducts electricity better. Stranded wire consists of smaller wires
braided together.
  Stranded wires are less prone to breakage when flexed repeatedly, which is why this type
of wire is common in phone chargers.

 Jumper wires are pre-cut flexible stranded wires of different lengths that have stiff ends
to allow the wire to be easily inserted in a breadboard.
 Hook-up wire is typically single conductor insulated wire used in low current, low voltage
(<600 Volts) applications for making internal connections.
 Magnet wire is a copper or aluminum wire coated with a very thin layer of insulation.
Magnet wire allows multiple layers of wire to be wound together without short circuiting.
When the wire is wound into a coil and energized, it creates an electromagnetic field.
 Magnet wire is often used in transformers, inductors, motors, electromagnets, Tesla coils,
and other applications that require tight coils of insulated wire.
 Wire-wrap wire is ideal for wire wrapping, hence the name. The silver-plated copper wire
is highly flexible and well insulated, yet resistant to scratch.
 Muscle wire is an extremely thin wire made from Nitinol that is known for its ability to
contract when an electric current is applied. It has been used for micro latches on
Microsoft® Surface Book laptops.

Jumper wires Hook-up wire Magnet wire

Wire-wrap wire Muscle wire

Cables:
 A cable is a group of insulated wires encased together in sheathing.
 Typically, a cable has at least one hot wire to carry the current, one neutral wire, and one
grounding wire.
 Cables are classified according to the number of wires it contains and their size/gauge.
Types of Cables:
 AC Power Cords safely deliver the current and voltage from domestic power to an
electronic device, usually an AC to DC power supply.
 Multi-conductor cable is a variation of stranded wire, where each cable hosts 2-60 distinct
conductors inside a common jacket. These cables can be used to connect heavy appliances,
in medical electronics, in audio systems, and more.
 Ribbon cable is a series of single-conductor wires connected side-by-side to form a ribbon
shape. It may also be called zip-wire because the conductors can be separated from the
ribbon.
 Coaxial cable has an insulated center conductor surrounded by a braided wire shield,
which is encased in a tough outer jacket/sheathing. Coaxial means two or more three-
dimensional linear forms that share a common axis. This type of transmission line carries
high frequency electrical signals with low losses. Some of the applications include carrying
cable television signals, broadband internet networking cables, and connecting radio
transmitters and receivers to their antennas.
 Speaker cable is two or more electrical conductors (typically copper) individually
insulated by plastic or rubber. The two wires are electrically the same but are marked to
identify the correct audio signal polarity. Speaker cable is used for the electrical
connections between speakers and amplifier sources.
Electrical Earthing:
 The process of transferring the immediate discharge of the electrical energy directly to the
earth by the help of the low resistance wire is known as the electrical earthing.
 The electrical earthing is done by connecting the non-current carrying part of the equipment
or neutral of supply system to the ground.
Types of Electrical Earthing:
The electrical equipment mainly consists of two non-current carrying parts. These parts are neutral
of the system or frame of the electrical equipment. From the earthing of these two non-current
carrying parts of the electrical system earthing can be classified into two types.
 Neutral Earthing
 Equipment Earthing
Neutral Earthing:
 In neutral earthing, the neutral of the system is directly connected to earth by the help of
the GI (galvanised iron) wire. The neutral earthing is also called the system earthing.
 Such type of earthing is mostly provided to the system which has star winding. For
example, the neutral earthing is provided in the generator, transformer, motor etc.
Equipment Earthing:
 Such type of earthing is provided to the electrical equipment. The non-current carrying part
of the equipment like their metallic frame is connected to the earth by the help of the
conducting wire.
  If any fault occurs in the apparatus, the short-circuit current to pass the earth by the help of
wire. Thus, protect the system from damage.
Importance of Earthing:
 The earthing protects the personnel from the short-circuit current.
 The earthing provides the easiest path to the flow of short-circuit current even after the
failure of the insulation.
 The earthing protects the apparatus and personnel from the high voltage surges and
lightning discharge.
Energy Billing:
 Electricity billing is usually based on two concepts - the total amount of electricity used in
the month (usage) and the peak amount of electricity used in any single hour (demand).
 Usage pays for the generation of electricity while demand pays for the transmission and
distribution of the electricity.
 Electricity is measured in watts (W) and its usage is measured in kilowatts (kW) and
megawatts (MW).
 A single kilowatt is equivalent to 1,000 watts, while 1 megawatt is equal to 1,000 kilowatts,
or 1 million watts.
 The amount of kilowatts used in an hour is referred to as 1 kilowatt hour (kWh) or 1 unit,
which is an energy.

Example:
Calculate the electricity bill amount for a month of 31 days, if the following devices are used
as specified.
(A) 3 bulbs of 40W for 6 hours
(B) 4 tube lights of 50W for 8 hours
(C) A T.V. of 120W for 6 hours
Given the rate of electricity is Rs. 2.50 per unit.
Solution:
It has been given that the following devices are used as specified- 3 bulbs of 40W for 6 hours,
4tube lights of 50W for 8 hours and a T.V. of 120W for 6 hours.
Total power the three bulbs consume in a day is given by,
40W×3=120Wh
=0.12kWh
Electrical units for one day = 0.12×6=0.72units.
Electrical units for 31 days = 0.72×31=22.32units.
Total power the four tube lights consume in a day is given by,
50W×4=200Wh
=0.2kWh
Electrical units for one day = 0.2×8=1.6units.
Electrical units for 31 days = 1.6×31=49.60units.
Total power the television consumes in a day is given by,
 120W×6=720Wh
=0.72kWh
Electrical units for one day = 0.72×6=4.32units.
Electrical units for 31 days = 4.32×31=133.92units.
Thus, from the above calculations, we can calculate the total electrical units consumed in a month
of 31 days.
Total units consumed= Electrical units consumed by bulbs for 31 days + Electrical units consumed
by tube lights for 31 days + Electrical units consumed by the television for 31 days.
Thus, the total units consumed
= 22.32+49.60+133.92=205.84units.
It has been given, that the rate of electricity is Rs. 2.50 per unit.
Then the total amount the bill amounts to is given by multiplying the total number of units with
the rate of electricity per unit.
Thus, we get the total bill
205.84×2.50=514.60.
Hence, the electricity bill amount for a month of 31 days amounts to Rs. 514.60.

Example:
Calculate the electricity bill amount for a month of 31 days, if the following devices are used
as specified:
a) 3 bulbs of 30 watts for 5 hours
b) 4 tube lights of 50 watts for 8 hours
c) 1 fridge of 300 watts for 24 hours
Given the rate of electricity is 2 Rs. per unit.
Solution:
The energy consumed by the bulbs,
As we know
Energy = power × time
3 bulbs × 30 watts × 5 hours × 31 days = 13950 Wh
The energy consumed by the tubes,
4 tubes × 50 watts × 8 hours × 31 days = 49600 Wh
The energy consumed by the fridge,
1 fridge × 300 watts × 24 hours × 31 days = 223200 Wh
Therefore, the total energy consumption is given by,
13950+49600+223200 = 286750 Wh = 286.75 KWh
We need to convert it into units, where 1 unit = 1 kWh
So, electricity bill = 286.75 units × 2 rs = Rs. 573.5