HUMAN ANATOMY I

DENNIS MWENDA
BSc clin med,mcm forensic med
Outline
► Definition
► Subdivisions of human anatomy

► Anatomical positions, directional terms & surface

anatomy
► The structure of cells, tissues & organs
Definition
► Anatomy is derived from a greek word “Anatome”
meaning “to cut up”.
► It is the study of structures that make up the body

and their relationships to one another.

► 3 subdivisions/subspecialties

• Gross or macroscopic anatomy

• Microscopic anatomy
• Developmental anatomy
Gross anatomy
► Regional anatomy – studies body parts regionally
i.e. all structures in one part of the body (such as
the abdomen or leg)
► Systemic anatomy – studies functional

relationships of organs within a system. Surface

anatomy – study of internal structures as they
relate to the overlying skin
Microscopic Anatomy
► Histology – a science that deals with the study of
tissues
► Requires the use of a microscope and

augmentation of the tissues.

Developmental Anatomy
• Embryology is the study of developmental
changes of the body before birth.
 Levels of structural organization of
►
the bodybody has different structural levels of
The human
organization, starting with atoms that form molecules
and compounds
► These increase in size and complexity to form cells,
tissues, organs and the systems that make up the
complete organism
► Chemical level – atoms combine to form molecules and
compounds (from carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, N, P, S)
► Cellular level – cells are made of molecules

► Tissue level – consists of similar types of cells

► Organ level – made up of different tissues

► Organ system level – consists of different organs that work

closely together
► Organismal level – human organism made up of the organ
systems
The cell
► The smallest independent unit of life
► Basic functions include: growth, metabolism,

irritability and reproduction

Tissue
► A group of many similar cells and their
intercellular substance that have similar
embryological origin and function together to
perform a specialized bodily activity.
► Various tissue of the body are divided into 4 broad

categories:
✓ Epithelial tissue
✓ Connective tissue
✓ Nervous tissue
✓ Muscle tissue
Organ
► An integrated collection of two or more kinds of
tissue that work together to perform a specific
function
System
► A group of organs that work together to perform a
major bodily function
Anatomical positions
► Anatomical positions are universally accepted as
starting points for positional references to the body
► Anatomical position – the subject stands erect

facing the observer, feet slightly apart or together,

arms hanging at the sides, palms facing forward,
thumbs pointing away from the body.
Relative directional terms
► Anterior (pre-)/posterior (post- or retro-)
► Superior (cranial)/inferior (caudal)

► Ventral/dorsal

► Medial/lateral

► Proximal/distal

► Superficial/deep

► Peripheral – away from the central axis of the body

Body planes
• Sagittal – divides the body into right and left parts
• Mid-sagittal – sagittal plane that lies on the midline
► Para-sagittal plane – divides body into unequal

right and left parts

• Frontal or coronal plane – divides the body into
anterior and posterior parts
• Transverse or horizontal (cross section) – divides
the body into superior and inferior parts
• Oblique plane – divides body into upper and
lower sections
 Body cavities
• Dorsal cavity protects the nervous system, and is
divided into two subdivisions
• Cranial cavity is within the skull and encases the
brain
• Vertebral cavity runs within the vertebral
column and encases the spinal cord
• Ventral cavity houses the internal organs (viscera),
and is divided into two subdivisions: thoracic and
abdominopelvic
Body cavities…
► Thoracic cavity is subdivided into pleural cavities, the
mediastinum, and the pericardial cavity
• Pleural cavities – each houses a lung
• Mediastinum – contains the pericardial cavity,
and surrounds the remaining thoracic organs
• Pericardial – encloses the heart
► The abdominopelvic cavity is separated from the
superior thoracic cavity by the dome-shaped
diaphragm. It is composed of two subdivisions:
• Abdominal cavity – contains the stomach,
intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs
• Pelvic cavity – lies within the pelvis and
contains the bladder, reproductive organs, and
rectum
Ventral body cavity membranes
► Parietal serosa covering the body walls
► Visceral serosa covering the internal organ

► Serous fluid separates the serosae.

► Other body cavities include:

► Oral and digestive – mouth and cavities of the

digestive organs
► Nasal –located within and posterior to the nose

► Orbital – houses the eyes

► Middle ear – contain bones (ossicles) that transmit

sound vibrations
► Synovial – joint cavities
Abdominopelvic regions
• Umbilical
• Epigastric
• Hypogastric or suprapubic
• Right and left iliac or inguinal
• Right and left lumbar
• Right and left hypochondriac
► The cell
►
Structure of cells, tissues & organs
Smallest living part of the body
► The basic morphological and functional unit

► During the process of growth, cellular multiplication

and differentiation occurs.

► Cellular differentiation is the by which primitive

cells undergo gradual morphological & chemical

modifications in cytoplasm and nucleus, resulting
in more functionally specialized cell types
Cell structure
❖ Plasma Membrane
❖ Cytoplasm
❖ Organelles
▪ Nucleus

▪ Ribosomes

▪ endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

▪ Golgi complex (apparatus)

▪ Mitochondria

▪ Lysosomes

▪ Peroxisomes
Structure of cells, tissues & organs….
► Cell structure…..
❖ Cytoskeleton, Cilia, Flagella
❖ Inclusions
❖ Extracellular matrix
The plasma membrane
(plasmalemma)
❖ Bounds/encloses all living cells, forming a
dynamic interface between the internal and
external cellular environment
❖ Consists of lipids (phospolipids & cholesterol),
proteins & surface associated polysaccharides
and oligosaccharides
❖ Functions include:
▪ Acts as a selective barrier, regulating/facilitating
transport of materials into and out of the cell.
▪ Plays a role in the way the cell perceives and
interacts with the environment.
▪ Maintains cell structure and intracellular climate
The plasma membrane…….
❖ Chemical Composition
▪ 80% phospholipids
⮚ "head" region of molecule is
hydrophilic
⮚ "tail" region of molecule is
hydrophobic
▪ 10% proteins (peripheral and integral)
▪ 10% cholesterol, glycolipids, carbohydrates
The plasma membrane…….
❖ Structure
▪ Phospholipid bilayer - two layers of
phospholipids with "head" regions pointing
inward and outward while "tail” regions
intermingle in the middle of the sandwich.
▪ Integral membrane proteins

⮚ Float in or completely across lipid bilayer

⮚ Act as selective channels for transport and
receptor sites for messengers (hormones)
▪ Peripheral membrane proteins
⮚ Lie on inner/outer surface of lipid bilayer
⮚ Many have enzymatic roles
Cytoplasm (cytosol)
❖ Composition and structure
▪ 90% water; 10% protein, carbohydrate, lipid, salts &
colloids
▪ Jelly-like fluid surrounding the nucleus
▪ Organelles and inclusions embedded here
▪ Criss-crossed by cytoskeleton that holds cell
shape
❖ Functions
▪ Site of many enzyme controlled reactions
▪ Site of both synthesis and degradation
reactions
▪ Intermediate area for storage and cell
transport
The nucleus
❖ Structure and composition
Organelles
Nuclear membrane - double lipid bilayer with circular
▪

gaps/pores
▪ Nucleoplasm (karyolymph) – proteins, metabolites &
ions
▪ Deoxyribose Nucleic Acids (DNA)
a. Chromatin – coiled strands of DNA bound to basic proteins
b. Chromosomes - condensed DNA, only when dividing
▪ Nucleolus – rich in RNA & basic proteins. Synthesizes
ribosomal RNA before cytoplasmic transfer.
❖ Primary Functions
✓ House and protect hereditary material (DNA)
✓ Copy DNA to RNA so proteins can be manufactured
✓ Produce ribosomal RNA (rRNA) to make ribosomes
Organelles
❖ Ribosomes – made up of rRNA and
associated proteins. Free or attached. Only site for
protein synthesis (read mRNA from nucleus)
❖ Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) – network of
cisterns near nucleus. Provide large surface area
for cellular reactions. Also transport, store &
package materials. Rough ER – protein synthesis,
storage, transport to golgi apparatus for packaging.
Smooth ER – store calcium (muscle )cells, detoxify
harmful compounds (liver) etc.
Organelles….
❖ Golgi Complex (Apparatus)
▪ Structure – cisternae lined up in stacks next
to
nucleus with cis, medial, and trans- parts.
▪ Process, sort, package, deliver proteins
✓ cis - closest to ER, receives new proteins
✓ medial - alters protein to functional form
✓ trans - forms secretory granules for protein
release
► digestive enzymes
► antibodies
► secretory glands
► extracellular matrix material
Organelles….
► Mitochondria
► Two-membrane structure
a. outer mitochondrial membrane
b. inner mitochondrial membrane (cristae).
► Matrix - within the inner membrane
► Primary Functions
► Powerhouse of the cell

► Glucose broken down in cytoplasm and converted

to useable energy (ATP)
► Varied distribution
► low energy required - fewer mitochondria
► high energy required - more mitochondria
✓ muscle cells, liver cells, kidney tubule
cells
Organelles….
► Lysosomes
► Are single membrane enclosed spheres.
► Two types -

► primary lysosome - bud-off from Golgi complex

► secondary lysosome - when fused with a vacuole

► Primary functions
► breakdown (digestion) of compounds and old parts
► autophagy - "self eating" reuse old organelles

► autolysis - "self destruction" of entire cell

► release digestive enzymes to outside

a. sperm entering egg during fertilization

b. during repair of bodily injury
c. osteoclasts - during bone growth
Organelles….
► Peroxisomes
► Small, single membrane enclosed
spheres
► Function: breakdown hydrogen
peroxide (toxic to cells), facilitated by catalase.
► Cell inclusions
► Conglomeration of molecules of same
type
► Examples include:
✓ melanin - pigment in skin, hair, eyes
✓ glycogen - glucose storage - liver and
muscles
✓ lipids - stored in fat cells
Cytoskeleton
A. Microfilaments
► 6 nanometers in diameter
► made up of subunits called actin (myosin in
muscle)
► support and cell shape
► movement - muscle contraction, white blood
cells (phagocytes)
B. Intermediate filaments
► 8-12 nanometers in diameter

► Support, shape, some intracellular movement

► Best studied: in nerve cells (neurons) - possible role
in
Alzheimer’s disease, other neuronal disorders
 Cytoskeleton….
Microtubules
► Approx. 24 nanometers in diameter. Made up of
subunits called tubulin
► Involved in intracellular transport ….. move organelles
around like a highway
► Involved in amoeboid motion of cells (phagocytes)

► Chief components of cilia and flagella

Cilia and flagella

► Both consist of microtubules
► Flagella very large for cell locomotion (sperm)

► Cilia very small, fingerlike projections

✓ epithelium of respiratory tract

✓ lining of digestive tract (intestinal villi)
Extracellular matrix
► Types
✓ interstitial (extracellular) fluid (including tissue fluid)
✓ secretory material (mucus, saliva, sweat)
✓ extracellular matrix (binding cells into tissue)
► Amorphous extracellular components (jelly-
like)
❖ hyaluronic acid - binding, lubrication, shape
❖ chondroitin sulfate - cartilage, bone, vessels
❖ dermatin sulfate - skin, tendons
❖ keratin sulfate - bone and cornea
► Fibrous extracellular components (thread-like)
⮚ collagen - primary subunit of fibrous components
⮚ collagenous fibers - bone, cartilage, tendon, ligaments
⮚ reticular fibers - fat, muscle, nerve, vessels
⮚ elastic fibers - (elastin) skin and blood vessels
CELL ANATOMY AND
CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
CMS SEPT 2016 CLASS
LECTURER
KAUSYA J.J.M.
KMTC-MWINGI
Objectives
⚫ By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to;
⚫ i. define terms used in cell anatomy
⚫ ii. Explain cell structure (morphology)
⚫ iii. Describe the morphology various organelles
⚫ iv. Appreciate the cell as the basic building block of
human body .
⚫ V. Demonstrate how cell anatomy relevant in diagnose
and management of diseases.
 WHY STUDY THE CELL
⮚ The cell is the basic unit of life and disease conditions
affect specific cells-eg malaria affect red blood cells,
diabetes –beta cells of the pancrease that produce insulin
⮚ Interventions in terms of drugs target specific cells – eg
antibiotics target bacterial cells or aspects of the same.
⮚ Understanding the cell structure helps us develop and
carry out interventions that are efficient, and appropriate to
sustain life, also in genetic engineering.
⚫ The atom is the smallest particle of an element which can exist
as a stable entity. An element is a chemical substance whose
atoms are all of the same type; e.g. iron contains only iron
atoms. Compounds contain more than one type of atom; for
instance, water is compound containing both hydrogen and
oxygen atoms(H2O). An element is a substance made of only
one type of atom (therefore, an atom is the smallest part of an
element). There are 92 naturally occurring elements in the world
around us.
⚫ Examples are hydrogen (H), iron (Fe), oxygen (O), calcium (Ca),
nitrogen (N), and carbon (C). In nature, an element does not
usually exist by itself but rather combines with the atoms of
other elements to form compounds.
Atomic structure
⚫ Atoms are made up of three main types of particles.
⚫ Protons are particles present in the nucleus or central part of
Atoms are the smallest parts of an element that have the
characteristics of that element. An atom consists of three major
subunits or particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. A proton
has a positive electrical charge and is found in the nucleus (or
center) of the atom. A neutron is electrically neutral (has no
charge) and is also found in the nucleus. An electron has a
negative electrical charge and is found outside the nucleus
orbiting in what may be called an electron cloud or shell around
the nucleus. The number of protons in an atom gives it its atomic
number. Protons and neutrons have mass and weight; they give an
atom its atomic weight. In an atom, the number of protons ()
equals the number of electrons (); therefore, an atom is electrically
neutral. The electrons, however, are important in that they may
enable an atom to connect, or bond, to other atoms to form
molecules. A molecule is a combination of atoms (usually of more
than one element) that are so tightly bound together that the
molecule behaves as a single unit. Each atom is capable of
The first, or innermost, energy level can contain a maximum of
two electrons and is the considered stable. The second energy
level is stable when it contains its maximum of eight electrons.
The remaining energy levels, more distant from the nucleus, are
also most stable when they contain eight electrons, or a multiple
of eight. A few atoms (elements) are naturally stable, or
uninterested in reacting, because their outermost energy level
already contains the maximum number of electrons. The gases
helium and neon are examples of these stable atoms, which do
not usually react with other atoms. Most atoms are not stable,
however, and tend to gain, lose, or share electrons in order to fill
their outermost shell. By doing so, an atom is capable of forming
one or more chemical bonds with other atoms. In this way, the
atom becomes stable, because its outermost shell of electrons
has been filled. It is these reactive atoms that are of interest in our
study of anatomy and physiology.
The human body is a precisely structured container of
chemical reactions. The body consists of trillions of atoms in
specific arrangements and thousands of chemical reactions
proceeding in a very orderly manner. The keys to
understanding human consciousness and self awareness are
still beyond our grasp. We do not yet know what enables us to
study ourselves—no other animals do, as far as we know—but
we have accumulated a great deal of knowledge about what
we are made of and how it all works. Some of this knowledge
makes up the course you are about to take, a course in basic
human anatomy and physiology. Pathophysiology is the study
of disorders of functioning, and a knowledge of normal
physiology makes such disorders easier to understand.
Anatomy is the study of body structure, which includes size,
shape, composition, and perhaps even coloration. Physiology is
the study of how the body functions. The physiology of red
blood cells, for example, includes what these cells do, how they
do it, and how this is related to the functioning of the rest of the
body. Physiology is directly related to anatomy. For example,
red blood cells contain the mineral iron in molecules of the
protein called hemoglobin; this is an aspect of their anatomy.
The presence of iron enables red blood cells to carry oxygen,
which is their function. All cells in the body must receive
oxygen in order to function properly, so the physiology of red
blood cells is essential to the physiology of the body as a
whole.
CHEMICALS
The chemicals that make up the body may be divided into two
major categories: inorganic and organic. Inorganic chemicals
are usually simple molecules made of one or two elements
other than carbon (with a few exceptions). Examples of
inorganic chemicals are water (H2O); oxygen (O2); one of the
exceptions, carbon dioxide (CO2); and minerals such as iron
(Fe), calcium (Ca), and sodium (Na). Organic chemicals are
often very complex and always contain the elements carbon
and hydrogen. In this category of organic chemicals are
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Cells
⚫ Smallest living unit
⚫ Most are microscopic.
A cell is the smallest
unit that is capable of
performing life
functions.
Examples of Cells

Amoeba Proteus

Plant Stem

Bacteria

Red Blood Cell

Nerve Cell
History of Cell Theory
i. mid 1600s – Anton van Leeuwenhoek
⚫ Improved microscope, observed many living cell

ii. mid 1600s – Robert Hooke

⚫ Observed many cells

iii. 1850 – Rudolf Virchow

⚫ Proposed that all cells come from existing cells
iv. Cells were discovered in 1665 by Robert Hooke.
v. Early studies of cells were conducted by
- Mathias Schleiden (1838)
- Theodor Schwann (1839)
vi. Schleiden and Schwann proposed the Cell Theory.
1. Cell Theory
All organisms consist of 1 or more cells.
2. Cell is the smallest unit of life.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
Principles of Cell Theory
⮚ All living things are made of cells
⮚ Smallest living unit of structure and function of all organisms is
the cell
⮚ All cells arise from preexisting cells
⮚ (this principle discarded the idea of spontaneous generation)
⮚ All cells today represent a continuous line of descent from the
first living cells.
⮚ Microscopes are required to visualize cells.
i. Light microscopes can resolve structures that are 200nm
apart.
ii. Electron microscopes can resolve structures that are 0.2nm
 Characteristics of All Cells
i. A surrounding membrane
ii. Protoplasm – cell contents in thick fluid
iii. Organelles – structures for cell function
iv. Control center with DNA
Cell Types
1. Prokaryotic
2. Eukaryotic
Prokaryotic
❖ Do not have structures surrounded by membranes
❖ Few internal structures
❖ One-celled organisms, Bacteria
Prokaryotic Cells
⚫ First cell type on earth
⚫ Cell type of Bacteria and Archaea
Prokaryotic Cells
⚫ No membrane bound nucleus
⚫ Nucleoid = region of DNA concentration
⚫ Organelles not bound by membranes
 Eukaryotic Cells
1. Include fungi, protists, plant, and
animal cells
2. compartmentalize many cellular
functions within organelles and
the endomembrane system ie
-Contain organelles surrounded by
membranes
3 . Most living organisms
4. possess a membrane-bound nucleus
-are more complex than prokaryotic cells
5. possess a cytoskeleton for support and
to maintain cellular structure
 Plant Animal

Plant (lt)…………. And,……….. animal (rt) cells

 INTRODUCTION
✓ The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in living things.
Cells vary in their shape size, and arrangements but all cells have
similar components, each with a particular function.
✓ Some of the 100 trillion of cells make up human body.
✓ All human cell are microscopic in size, shape and function.
✓ The diameter range from 7.5 micrometer (RBC) to 150 mm
(ovum).
✓ Cell is defined as the fundamental living unit of any organism.
✓ -Cell is important to produce energy for metabolism (all
chemical reactions within a cell)
✓ -Cell can mutate (change genetically) as a result of
accidental changes in its genetic material (DNA).
✓ Cytology: the study of the structure and functions of cells.

ahmad ata 19
 n
Cell Parts
Organelles
=components of cell
.
cell organelles
1. Cell membrane
2. Cytoplasm
3. Nucleus
4. Mitochondria
5. Endoplasmic reticulum
6. Ribosomes
7. Lysosomes
8. Vacuoles
9. Golgi bodies
10. Chloroplast
Endomembrane System
Endomembrane system is
-a series of membranes throughout the
cytoplasm
-divides cell into compartments where different
cellular functions occur
1. endoplasmic reticulum
2. Golgi apparatus
3. lysosomes

22
Membrane Junctions
◼ Tight junction – impermeable junction that encircles the
cell & prevents leakage
– Blood brain barrier
- Skin
◼ Desmosome – anchoring junction scattered along the
sides of cells. Prevents tissues from fraying
Stomach, uterus , bladder
◼ Gap junction – allows chemical substances to pass
between cells
◼ Heart

ahmad ata 23
Cell structure
1) THE CELL (PLASMA) MEMBRANE
⚫ The cell membrane is a thin, dynamic membrane
that encloses the cell and controls what enters
and leaves the cell.
⚫ Fluid Mosaic Model
composed of a double layer (bilayer) of
phospholipid molecules with many protein
molecules dispersed within it

ahmad ata 24
Fluid Mosaic Model
a. The surfaces of the membrane are "hydrophilic"
due to the polar phosphate heads;
b. The internal portion of the membrane is
"hydrophobic" due to the non-polar fatty acid tails;
c. The membrane proteins also have both hydrophilic
and hydrophobic
d. PLASMA MEMBRANE
⮚ hydrophillic phosphate head,
hydrophobic fatty acid tails
⮚ Chemical attractions are the forces that hold
membranes together

ahmad ata 25
Function of plasma membrane

⚫ Serves as boundary of the cell.

⚫ Serve as markers that identify the cells.
⚫ Play significant role in transportation.
⚫ Cell recognition proteins-allow cell to recognize other
cells.
Membrane proteins-
⚫ Some membrane proteins have carbohydrates attached to
them, forming glycoproteins that act as identification
markers
⚫ Some membrane proteins are receptors that react to

specific chemicals, sometimes permitting a process called

signal transduction
ahmad ata 26
Cytoplasm
❖ Is a gel-like matrix of water, enzymes, nutrients,
wastes, and gases and contains cell structures
(organelles).
❖ Fluid around the organelles called cytosol.
⚫ Most of the cells metabolic reactions occur in the
cytoplasm.
⚫ Viscous fluid containing organelles

⚫ components of cytoplasm

⚫ Interconnected filaments & fibers

⚫ Fluid = cytosol

⚫ Organelles (not nucleus)

⚫ storage substances

⚫ NB: Structures found inside the cell are called organelles.

ahmad ata 27
 Cytoskeleton
⮚ Filaments & fibers
⮚ Made of 3 fiber
types
⚫ Microfilaments
⚫ Microtubules

⚫ Intermediate filaments

⚫ 3 functions:
⚫ mechanical support
⚫ anchor organelles
⚫ help move substances
 “Typical” Animal Cell

http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/images/cell.gif
 “Typical” Plant Cell

http://waynesword.palomar.edu/images/plant3.gif
Phospholipids
Interacts with water
⚫ Polar;
⚫ Hydrophylic head
Non polar;
⚫ Hydrophobic tail
Membrane Proteins
1. Channels or transporters
⚫ Move molecules in one direction
2. Receptors
3. Glycoproteins
⚫ Identify cell type
4. Enzymes
⚫ Catalyze production of substances

⚫ Recognize certain chemicals

⚫ (see diag. below)
Membrane Proteins
Cilia & Flagella

⚫ Provide motility
⚫ Cilia

⚫ Short
⚫ Used to move substances

outside human cells

⚫ Flagella
⚫ Whip-like extensions
⚫ Found on sperm cells

⚫ Basal bodies like

centrioles
⚫ microvilli
Nucleus : enclosed by nuclear
membrane
⚫ Directs cell activities
⚫ Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear membrane
⚫ Contains genetic mater
⚫ Contains:-
i. Hereditary material
ii. Chromosomes
⚫ DNA
⚫ Proteins
⚫ Form for cell division
⚫ iii. Chromatin
⚫ iv - DNA
Chromosomes

⚫ In nucleus
⚫ Made of DNA
⚫ Contain instructions for
traits & characteristics
http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html
 Nucleolus-found in the nucleus
⚫ Most cells have 2 or more
⚫ Directs synthesis of RNA
⚫ Forms ribosomes

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Helps move substances within cells
Network of interconnected membranes
Two types
⚫ Rough endoplasmic reticulum
⚫ Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
⚫ Ribosomes attached to surface
⚫ Manufacture protiens
⚫ Not all ribosomes attached to rough ER
⚫ May modify proteins from ribosomes
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
⚫ No attached ribosomes
⚫ Has enzymes that help build molecules
⚫ Carbohydrates
⚫ Lipids
Golgi Apparatus
⚫ Involved in synthesis of plant cell wall
⚫ Packaging & shipping station of cell
Golgi Apparatus Function
1. Molecules come in vesicles
2. Vesicles fuse with Golgi membrane
3. Molecules may be modified by Golgi
4. Molecules pinched-off in separate vesicle
5. Vesicle leaves Golgi apparatus
6. Vesicles may combine with plasma membrane
to secrete contents
 Lysosomes
⚫ Contain digestive enzymes
⚫ Functions
⚫ Aid in cell renewal

⚫ Break down old cell parts

⚫ Digests invaders

Vacuoles
⚫ Membrane bound storage sacs
⚫ More common in plants than animals
⚫ Contents
⚫ Water
⚫ Food
⚫ wastes
Bacteria-Like Organelles

⚫ Release & store energy

⚫ Types
⚫ Mitochondria
(release energy)
⚫ Chloroplasts
(store energy)
Mitochondria
⚫ Have their own DNA
⚫ Bound by double membrane
⚫ Break down fuel molecules (cellular respiration)
⚫ Glucose
⚫ Fatty acids

⚫ Release energy
⚫ ATP
Chloroplasts
⚫ Derived form photosynthetic bacteria
⚫ Solar energy capturing organelle
⚫ Takes place in the chloroplast

⚫ Makes cellular food – glucose

⚫ photosynthesis
⮚ Takes place in the chloroplast
⮚ Makes cellular food – glucose
 "free" ribosomes

ER
Plasma membra

microtubule
mitochondrion

Intermediate filaments
microfilament
Review of Eukaryotic Cells
Review of Eukaryotic Cells
Molecule Movement & Cells
⮚ Passive Transport
⮚ Active Transport
⮚ Endocytosis-(phagocytosis & pinocytosis)
⮚ Exocytosis
Passive Transport
i.No energy required
ii.Move due to gradient
⚫ differences in concentration, pressure, charge
iii.Move to equalize gradient
⚫ High moves toward low
Types of Passive Transport
1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis
3. Facilitated diffusion
Diffusion
⚫ Molecules move to equalize concentration
Osmosis
❖ Special form of diffusion
❖ Fluid flows from lower solute concentration
❖ Often involves movement of water
⚫ Into cell
⚫ Out of cell

Solution Differences & Cells

⚫ solvent + solute = solution

⚫ Hypotonic
⚫ Solutes in cell more than outside
⚫ Outside solvent will flow into cell
⚫ Isotonic
-Solutes equal inside & out of cell
⚫ Hypertonic
 Types of Passive Transport
1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis
3. Facilitated diffusion
 Facilitated Diffusion
⮚ Differentially permeable membrane
⮚ Channels (are specific) help molecule or ions enter or leave
the cell
⮚ Channels usually are transport proteins (aquaporins
facilitate the movement of water)
⮚ No energy is used
Process of Facilitated Transport
⚫ Protein binds with molecule
⚫ Shape of protein changes
⚫ Molecule moves across membrane (see diag. below)
Active transport - movement of a substance from a
lower concentration to a higher concentration using a
carrier and energy
Endocytosis - brings substances into the cells
:solutes moving against concentration gradient
-Uses carrier proteins ,can be driven by ATP use or via
energy stored in ionic concentration
Types :
Primary active transport
Secondary active transport
1. Endocytosis
2. Exocytosis
3. Transcytosis
Primary active transport
uses ATP and transporter proteins sodium
potassium pump

ahmad ata 57
Active Transport
⚫ Molecular movement
⚫ Requires energy (against gradient)
⚫ Example is sodium-potassium pump
Endocytosis
❖ Movement of large material
⮚Particles
⮚Organisms
⮚Large molecules
❖ Movement is into cells
❖ Types of endocytosis
⮚ bulk-phase (nonspecific)
⮚ receptor-mediated (specific)
Process of Endocytosis
❖ Plasma membrane surrounds material
❖ Edges of membrane meet
❖ Membranes fuse to form vesicle s
Endocytosis
⚫ Movement of large material
⚫ Particles
⚫ Organisms
⚫ Large molecules
⚫ Movement is into cells
⚫ Types of endocytosis
⚫ bulk-phase (nonspecific)
⚫ receptor-mediated (specific)
Process of Endocytosis
⚫ Plasma membrane surrounds material
⚫ Edges of membrane meet
⚫ Membranes fuse to form vesicle
Exocytosis
⚫ Reverse of endocytosis
⚫ Cell discharges material
Exocytosis
⚫ Vesicle moves to cell
surface
⚫ Membrane of vesicle fuses
⚫ Materials expelled
END

THANK YOU
 EMBRYOLOGY
• Embryology simply means the study of
embryos.
• It generally refers to prenatal development
of embryos and developmental anatomy is
the field of embryology concerned with
the changes that cells, tissues , organs and
the body as whole undergo from a germ
cell of each parent to the resulting adult.
• Pre-natal development is more rapid than
postnatal development.
 Why study embryology?
Interests in human development before birth is widespread,
largely because of curiosity about our beginnings and the
desire to improve quality of life.

Human development is a continuous process that begins when an

oocyte (ovum) from a female is fertilized by a sperm
(Spermatozoon) from a male. Cell division, cell migration,
differentiation growth and cell rearrangement transform the
fertilized oocyte a highly specialized potent cell a zygote into
a multicellular human being. Although most development
changes occur during the embryonic and fetal periods ,
important changes occur during later periods of development
- infancy childhood adolescence and early childhood.

Development does not stop at birth important changes in addition

to growth occur after birth e.g. development of teeth and
female breasts. The brain triples in weight between birth and
16 years most development changes are complete by the age
of 25 years.
 Embryological Terminologies

• The following terms are commonly used in

discussions of the developing humans.
• Most terms have Latin (L.) Greek (Gr.) origins.
• Understanding the origin of embryological terms
adds clarity and often serves as a memory key.
• For example the word Zygote is derived from a
Greek word Zygotos meaning yoked or joined ,
which indicates that the sperm and oocyte unite to
form a new cell the Zygote.
Oocyte: (Ovum, egg) the female germ or sex cell
produced in the ovaries is called a secondary oocyte
or mature oocyte.
Sperm: (Gr. Sperma, seed) (Latin- Spermatozoon). The
sperm or spermatozoon , refers to the male germ cell
produced in the testes (testicles). Numerous sperms
(Spermatozoa) are expelled from the male urethra
during ejaculation.
Zygote:- This cell result s from the union of an oocyte
and a sperm during fertilization . A zygote is the
beginning of a new human being (i.e. an embryo).
4. Fertilization age:
• It is difficult to determine exactly when fertilization
(conception) occurs because the process cannot be
observed in vivo (within the living body).
• Physicians calculate the age of the embryo or fetus
from the presumed first day of the last normal
menstrual period (LNMP). This is the gestational age,
which is about two weeks longer than the fertilization
age because, the oocyte is not fertilized until about
two weeks after the proceeding menstruation
consequently when a physician states the age of an
embryo or fetus, two weeks must be deducted to
determine the actual or fertilization age of the
developing human
5. Cleavage:
This is the series of mitotic cell division of the zygote
that results is the formation of the early embryonic
cells- blastomeres. The size of the cleaving zygote
remains unchanged because at each succeeding
cleavage division, the blastomeres become smaller.

6. Morula- (L. Morus Mulbery): This solid mass of

about 12-32 blastomeres is formed by cleavage of a
zygote. The blastomeres change their shape and fightly
align themselves against each other to form a compact
ball of cells this phenomenon- compaction is probably
mediated by cell surface adhesion glycoproteins . The
morula was given this name because of its
resemblance to the fruit a mulberry or blackberry
bush. The morula stage occurs 3-4 days after
fertilization, just as the early embryo enters the uterus.
7.Blastocyst: (Gr. Blastos, germ +kystis)
After the morula enters the uterus from the uterine
tube – fallopian tube - a fluid filled cavity – the
blastocystic cavity –develops inside it . This change
converts the morula into a blatocyst. Its centrally
located cells- the inner cell mass or embryoblast are
the primodium or beginning of the embryo.

8. Implantation: The process during which the

blastocyst attaches to the endometrium – mucous
memberane or lining of the uterus- and
subsequently embeds in it. The pre-implantation
period of embryonic development is the time
between fertilization and the beginning of
implantation takes 6days.
9. Gastrula- This is the period of transformation
a blastocyst into a three layered or trilaminar
embryonic disc. This takes place in the 3 rd week .
The three germ layers of the gastrula – Ectoderm,
mesoderm and Endoderm subsequently
differentiate into the tissues and organs of the
embryo e.g. Muscular tissue and stomach .

10. Neurula- (Gr. Neuron, nerve- The early

embryo during the third and fourth weeks when
the neural tube is developing from the neural
plate. It is the 1 st appearance of the nervous
system , and the next stage after the gastrula.
11. Conceptus - (derivatives of Zygote). The embryo
and its associated membranes ( the products of
conception). The conceptus includes all structures that
develop from the zygote, both embryonic and extra-
embrayonic hence it includes the embryo as well as the
embryonic part of the placenta and its associated
memberanes - Amnions
-Chorionic sac (gestational sac)
- and yolk sacs
12. Fetus: (unborn off spring ). After the embryonic
period 8weeks the developing human is called a fetus.
During the fetal period -9 th week to birth differentiation
and growth of the tissues and organs formed during the
embryonic period occur.
Although developmental changes are not so dramatic as
those happening during the embryonic periods they are
very important because they make it possible for the
tissues and organs to function.
The rate of body growth is remarkable, especially during
the 3rd and 4 th months, and weight gain is terminal during
the terminal months.
13. Primodium-
(L. Primus – first to begin)
• The beginning or first indication of organ
or structure.
• The term enlarge or rudiment have
similar meanings. The premodium of the
upper limits appears as a bud on day 26.
 Stages of Development

• Early embryonic development is

described in stages because of the
variables period it takes for embryos
to develop certain morphological
characteristics.
 Stage 1 of development
• Begins at fertilization and embryonic
development ends at stage 23 which
occurs on day 56 . The fetal period
begins on day 57 and ends when the
fetus is completely outside the mother.
The stages of embryonic development
• Can be assessed by an ultrasound
Abortions (L. Aboriri,
• A premature stoppage to miscarry)
of development and
expulsion of a conceptus from the uterus or
expulsion of an embryo or fetus before it is viable
- capable of living outside the uterus.
There are different types of abortions:-
Threatened abortion: Bleeding with the possibility
of abortion)
Accidental abortion: Occurs because of an
accident e.g. fall, trauma etc.
Spontaneous abortion: Is the one that occur
naturally and is most common during 3 rd wk after
fertilization.
4. Habitual abortion: spontaneous expulsive of a
dead or non-viable embryo on fetus in three or more
consecutive pregnancies.

5. Induced abortion: Is a birth that is induced

before 20 weeks (i.e. before the fetus is viable) . This
type of abortion refers to the expulsion of an
embryo or fetus that is brought on intentionally by
drugs or mechanical means e.g. by vacuum curettage-
removal of conceptus by a hollow curette introduced
into the uterus through which sunction is applied.
6. Complete abortion: This is which all products
of conception are expelled from the uterus.

7. Criminal abortion: Is one that is produced

illegally.

8. Legally induced: (elective, justifiable or

therapeutic abortions are usually produced by drugs
curettage.
These abortions are usually induced because of the
mothers poor health (physical or mental) or to
prevent the birth of a severely malformed child e.g.
one without most of its brain.
9. Missed abortion: Is the retention of a conceptus
in the uterus after death of the embryo or fetus.

10. A miscarriage: Is the spontaneous abortion of

the fetus and its membranes before the middle of the
2nd trimester- about 135 days).

11. An abortus: Is the product of an abortion . i.e.

the embryo , fetus and its membranes.
 Trimester
• A period of three calendar months
during a pregnancy. Obstetricians
commonly divide the 9 months of
gestation into three trimesters. The
most critical stages of development
occur during the first trimester (13wks)
when embryonic and early fetal
development is occurring.
 Congenital Anomalies or
Birth defects
• Abnormalities of development that are
present at birth or born with e.g. a cleft
lip or palate. In some cases the
anomalies are not detected until
childhood or even adulthood e.g. three
kidneys instead of two.
 Postnatal Period
• Changes occurring after birth
 Infancy
• Infancy refers to the earliest period of
extrauterine life roughly the first year
after birth. An infant aged one month or
less is called a newborn or neonate.
• Transition from intrauterine to
extrauterine existence requires many
critical changes especially in the
cardiovascular and respiratory systems. If
a neonate survives the first crucial hours
after.
 Teratology
• In Greek word means monster . It is the
divisions of embryology and pathology
that deals with abnormal development
(or birth defects). This branch of
embryology is concerned with various
genetic and environmental factors that
disturb normal development and
produce birth defects.
Significance of Embryology
Bridges the gap between prenatal development
and obstetrics , perinatal medicine,
peadiatrics and clinical anatomy.
Develops knowledge concerning the beginning
of human life and the changes occurring
during prenatal development.
It is of practical value in helping to understand
the causes of variations in human structure.
Explains how normal and abnormal relations
develop.
NB:
• Knowledge that physicians have of normal
development and the causes of anomalies is
necessary for giving embryo and fetus the
greatest possible chance of developing
normally.
• Much of the modern practice of obstetrics
involves applied embryology.
• Embryological topics of special interest to
obstetricians are :-
✓ Ovulation
✓ Oocyte and sperm transport
✓ Fertilization
✓ Implantation
✓ Fetal maternal relations
✓ Fetal circulation
✓ Critical periods of development and
✓ Causes of birth defects.
BODY CAVITIES
Cranial
Thoracic
Abdominal
Pelvic

Prepared by: Madam Ruth

Body Cavities
 BODY CAVITIES
Body Cavities - Body cavities
are spaces within the body that
help protect, separate, and
support internal organs.
Dorsal Body Cavity
Ventral Body Cavity
Body Cavities

 Thoracic cavity is subdivided into pleural cavities,

the mediastinal cavity, and the pericardial cavity
 Pleural cavities – each houses a
lung
 Mediastinum – contains the
pericardial cavity, and surrounds
the remaining thoracic organs
 Pericardial cavity – encloses the
heart
 Body Cavities
 The abdominopelvic cavity is separated from the
superior thoracic cavity by the dome-shaped
diaphragm
 It is composed of two subdivisions

Abdominal cavity – contains the

stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and
other organs
Pelvic cavity – lies within the pelvis
and contains the bladder,
reproductive organs, and rectum
Ventral Body Cavity
Membranes
 Parietal serosa lines internal body walls

 Visceral serosa covers the internal organs

 Serous fluid separates the serosae

Ventral Body Cavity Membranes
Ventral Body Cavity Membranes
 BODY CAVITIES

Dorsal Body Cavity - The

dorsal body cavity is located
near the dorsal (back) surface
of the body and has two
subdivisions, the cranial cavity
and the vertebral canal.
 Body Cavities
 Dorsal
cavity protects the nervous system, and is
divided into two subdivisions
Cranial cavity is within the skull and
encases the brain
Vertebral cavity runs within the
vertebral column and encases the
spinal cord
 Ventralcavity houses the internal organs (viscera),
and is divided into two subdivisions: - Thoracic and
Abdominopelvic cavities
Body Cavities
 Other Body Cavities

 Oral and digestive – mouth and cavities of the

digestive organs
 Nasal –located within and posterior to the nose
 Orbital – house the eyes
 Middle ear – contain bones (ossicles) that transmit
sound vibrations
 Synovial – joint cavities
 BODY CAVITIES

The cranial cavity is formed

by the cranial bones and
contains the brain.
 BODY CAVITIES

The vertebral (spinal) canal is the

spinal cord. formed by the bones of the
vertebral column and contains

Threelayers of protective tissue, called

meninges, line the dorsal body cavity.
 BODY CAVITIES
Ventral Body Cavity - The
ventral body cavity is
subdivided by the diaphragm
into an upper thoracic cavity
and a lower abdominopelvic
cavity.
 BODY CAVITIES

The thoracic cavity contains

two pleural cavities, and the
mediastinum, which includes
the pericardial cavity.
UPPER THORACIC CAVITY

The pleural cavities enclose

the lungs, while the pericardial
cavity surrounds the heart.
 UPPER THORACIC CAVITY
The mediastinum is a broad,
median partition between the
lungs that extends from the
sternum to the vertebral column, it
contains all contents of the
thoracic cavity except the lungs.
The pericardial cavity encloses
the heart and great vessels.
ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY

The abdominopelvic cavity is

divided into a superior
abdominal and an inferior
pelvic cavity.
Abdominopelvic Regions
 Umbilical
 Epigastric
 Hypogastric
 Right and left iliac or
inguinal
 Right and left lumbar
 Right and left
hypochondriac

Figure 1.11a
Organs of the Abdominopelvic Regions

Figure 1.11b
Abdominopelvic Quadrants

 Right upper (RUQ)

 Left upper (LUQ)
 Right lower (RLQ)
 Left lower (LLQ)

Figure 1.12
ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
Viscera of the abdominal cavity
include the stomach, spleen,
pancreas, liver, gallbladder, small
intestine, and most of the large
intestine
ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
Viscera of the pelvic cavity
include the urinary bladder,
portions of the large intestine and
internal female and male
reproductive structures.
ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
Thoracic
and Abdominal Cavity
Membranes:
A thin, slippery serous
membrane covers the viscera
within the thoracic and abdominal
cavities and also lines the walls of
the thorax and abdomen.
ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
Parts of the serous membrane
are the parietal layer which
lines the walls of the cavities
and the visceral layer which
covers and adheres to the
viscera within the cavities.
ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
Serous fluid between the two
layers reduces friction and allows
the viscera to slide somewhat
during movements.
The serous membranes include
the pleura, pericardium and
peritoneum.
PLEURAL MEMBRANE
The pleural membrane
surrounds the lungs, with the
visceral pleura clinging to the
surface of the lungs and the
parietal pleura lining the chest
wall.
PERICARDIUM
The serous membrane of the
pericardial cavity is the
pericardium, with visceral
pericardium covering the surface
of the heart and the parietal
pericardium lining the chest wall.
 PERITONEUM
The peritoneum is the serous
membrane of the abdominal
cavity, with the visceral peritoneum
covering the abdominal viscera
and the parietal peritoneum lining
the abdominal wall.
ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS

To describe the location of

organs easily, the
abdominopelvic cavity may be
divided into nine regions by
drawing four imaginary lines
REGIONS
ABDOMINOPELVIC QUADRANTS
To locate the site of an
abdominopelvic abnormality in
clinical studies, the
abdominopelvic cavity may be
divided into quadrants by passing
imaginary horizontal and vertical
lines through the umbilicus.
ABDOMINOPELVIC QUADRANTS
ABDOMINAL QUADRANTS