Change in thermal energy = mass x S.H.C.

x temperature rise

ΔQ = m x c x ΔT

 For best results, insulate the block to prevent heat loss to the
surroundings

Topic three waves

Summary Notes
General wave properties

Waves transfer energy without transferring matter; particles oscillate about a fixed point.

 Amplitude – the distance from the equilibrium position to the maximum displacement
 Wavelength – the distance between a point on one wave and the same point on the next
wave
 Frequency – the number of waves that pass a single point per second
 Speed – the distance travelled by a wave each second

 Speed is related to frequency and wavelength by

𝒅= 𝒒 × 𝒘 𝒈 𝒉

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Types of waves

 Transverse waves
 Has peaks and troughs
 Vibrations are at right angles to
the direction of travel
 An example is light

 Longitudinal waves
 Consists of compressions (particles pushed together) and rarefactions (particles
moved apart)
 Vibrations are in the same direction( parallel ) the direction of travel
 An example is sound

A wave front

 Is a surface containing points affected in the same way by a wave

at a given time such as crests or troughs

Reflection

 Waves reflect off smooth, plane surfaces rather than

getting absorbed
 Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
 Rough surfaces scatter the light in all directions, so
they appear matte and unreflective
 Frequency, wavelength, and speed are all unchanged

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Reflection of Light

When light is reflected off a plane mirror, it

forms an image with these characteristics
 Upright
 Same distance from the mirror as the
object
 Same size
 Virtual

Refraction

is the change in both speed and wavelength of a wave as it travels from one medium to
another

Remember

a) If the incident ray is lying along the normal (the ray is perpendicular to the boundary
or the angle of incidence = zero), then no bending occurs.

b) If the wave comes from a less dense medium to a more dense medium, then its speed
decreases and it bends towards the normal (i>r).

c) If the wave comes from a more dense medium to a less dense medium, then its speed
increases and it bends away from the normal (i<r).

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 In all cases, the frequency stays the same but the wavelength changes.
 The refractive index n of a medium is defined as the ratio between the speed of light in
a vacuum and the speed of light in the medium
 Snell's law relates the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction to the refractive
 The critical angle can be related to the refractive

n= n= n=

Critical angle:

 At a certain angle of incidence called the critical

angle, the light will travel along the boundary
between the two media.

Total internal reflection:

 Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of

incidence is greater than the critical angle and the
light reflects back into the medium.
 For total internal reflection to occur, the light
must also be travelling from a more optically
dense medium into a less optically dense medium
(most common example is glass to air).

Optical fibers

 An optical fibre is a long thin rod of glass surrounded by cladding which uses total
internal reflection to transfer information by light, even when bent.
 Extensive use in medicine (endoscopes, inside-body flexible cameras) and
communications
(high speed data transfer).

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Diffraction

 Waves spread out when they go around the sides of an

obstacle or through a gap
 The narrower the gap or the greater the
wavelength, the more the diffraction
 Frequency, wavelength, and speed are all
unchanged

Dispersion of light

 When white light is passed through a glass prism, it

splits up into its constituent colors. This happens
because the different colors travel at different
speeds in the glass, so they refract by different
amounts.
 The seven colors in order of decreasing wavelength
are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet
(ROYGBIV).
 The greater the wavelength, the slower the speed in glass and the greater the
refractive index.
 Light of a single frequency is described as monochromatic

Electromagnetic spectrum

Properties of electromagnetic waves

 Transverse waves
 Do not need a medium ( travel in vacuum )
 All electromagnetic waves travel with the same speed of 3.0 x 108 ms-1 in a vacuum
and approximately the same speed in air.

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 Region of E.M.
Uses Dangers
spectrum

broadcasting,
radio -
communication

cooking, internal heating of body

microwaves
satellite communication tissue

heating,
infrared skin burns
night vision

photography,
visible skin burns
fiber-optic communication

fluorescent lamps blindness,

ultraviolet
and inks damage to surface cells

observing internal
damage to internal cells
x-rays structures,
and organs
for medicine and materials

sterilizing food mutation of cells,

gamma rays
and medical equipment cancer

 Communication with artificial satellites usually uses microwaves to communicate

with low level artificial satellites.
An artificial satellite is a human-made satellite that orbits the
Earth.

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  Most communications satellites occupy a geostationary orbit
they remain above the same point on Earth as they orbit.
This means that a signal can be pointed at the artificial satellite
and that a link can be established between that point on Earth
and the satellite so that information can be passed between them

Sound Waves

Sound waves are longitudinal waves created by vibrating sources. A

medium is needed to transmit sound waves (such as air).

 The greater the amplitude of a sound wave, the louder it is.

 The greater the frequency of a sound wave, the higher its
pitch

Digital electronics

 Analogue signals vary continuously in amplitude,

frequency or both.
 Digital signals are a series of pulses with two states, a
high state (1) and a low state (0) Digital signals carry
more information per second and maintain their
quality better

 The range of audible frequencies for a healthy human ear is 20 Hz to 20000 Hz.
Ultrasound is sound with a frequency greater than 20000 Hz
 The speed of sound in air is approximately 340 m/s. In liquids 1500 m/s and solids
5000 m/s the particles are much closer together

 To measure the speed of sound in air, you can make a noise at a known, large distance
from a solid wall and record the time for the echo (reflected sound) to be heard, then
use

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 Speed =

 sonar (sound navigation and ranging) system to locate object

such as shipwrecks and shoal fish , ultrasound pulse is sent
from the boat to object the time taken to reach object and
return with the speed of sound enable the distance to be calculated
 ultrasound scanning also can be used to diagnose problem with various organs in
body , and also used to search defects in metal pipes and other material

Converging lens

 Principal axis the straight line passing through

the center of the lens is called principal axis.
 Focal point or Focus A point at which incident
rays parallel to the principal axis of a lens
converges
 Focal length The distance from the optical
center to the focus
 Real images they are images where light
actually converges to a position and can be projected onto a screen.
 Virtual images they are images where light only appears to have converged and
they cannot be projected onto a screen.

 short sighted , can see close object but object faraway are blurred
, to correct short sighted diverging lenses can be placed in front
of eyes

 long sighted can see object a long way away but object close by
are blurred , to correct long sighted converging lenses can be
placed in front of the eyes

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 Topic Four
Electricity and
Magnetism
Summary Notes
Magnetism

Magnetic forces are due to interactions between magnetic fields.

 In a magnet, like poles repel and opposite poles attract.

 Magnetic materials ( ferrous ) are materials that are attracted to magnets and can be
magnetized (iron , steel, cobalt, nickel )
 Non-magnetic materials (non- ferrous ) are materials that are not attracted to
magnets and cannot be magnetized ( glass, plastic )
 Magnetic materials can be magnetized by induced magnetism

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