STRUCTURES

What is a structure?
A structure is something that support load. The load may be an object,
a person or a weight.
When you think of structures you probably think of things like bridges,
electricity pylons and tall buildings.
These are very obvious structures, but there are other examples much
closer to you, things such as stools, benches, cupboards and even
doors.

In our everyday world we are surrounded by Natural and

Manufactured (man-made) structures of infinite variety, ranging
from the simple, to the complex.

Structur
es

Natural manufactured (man-made)

Structures Structures

Shell Frame
Frame Shell structures structures
structures structures
A. Manufactured (man-made) structures
Manufactured structures make up the built environment, which
includes;
 shelter in the form of buildings such as homes, schools and
shops
 transport in the form of vehicles, roads and bridges;
 the provision of energy, through structures such as dams and
electricity pylons
 Other manufactured structures such as clothing and furniture
are designed to improve the everyday quality of our lives.

B. Natural Structures
The natural environment with its plants, animals, birds, fish and
insects is a marvelous resource of natural structures.

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The ways in which structures like flowers, fruit, eggs and shells,
contain and safely protect their contents is truly amazing!

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

Most structures are really systems, because they are made up of a

number of parts (members) held together in their respective positions
that work together as a unit.
The complex skeletal system of the human body is an example of
frame structure. Here the bones, forming the skeleton, provide rigid
support and anchorage for muscles as well as protection for the more
delicate tissues.
Trees, leaves and spider's webs are all examples of frame
structures. An umbrella supports its load in a very similar way to the
leaf.

Other types of structures, including car bodies and drink cans have
no obvious underlying framework.
They are made from the body material itself and are known as shell
structures. They can be surprisingly strong yet very light, when
compared to frame structures.
Egg shells, honeycombs and the hollow stems of many plants are
all examples of shell structures. The hollow stems 'support their load
in exactly the same way that a metal tube supports a TV aerial,

Example of Structures

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Washing machine – man-made Car – man –made

Spider web – natural structure A Chair

Pylon – man – made frame structure Can of Drink – man –

made
shell structure

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 Human skeleton – natural frame structure

USES OF A STRUCTURE
A structure has three uses;
1. to support load
2. to span a gap

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3. to enclose something

How forces act on structures

A force acting on a structure is the amount of load acting on the

structure by another object. Forces can make things move, stop things
moving, change the speed and direction of movement, and change the
shape of things. When you push a window to open it, the push is a
force. When you pull a door to open it, the pull is a force. When you sit
on a chair, your mass pushing down on the chair is a force. When you
stand on a cool drink can, the force you exert flattens the can.

Static and dynamic forces

Forces can be static or dynamic. What do these words mean?

Static forces
A static force is a stationary force. For example, a child lying in bed
or a student sitting on a chair exerts a stationary force.

Dynamic forces
A dynamic force is a moving force. It is a stronger force than a static
one. For example, if a young child jumped up and down on a bed, the
bed would be more likely to break.
In pictures shown below, the structure (the bed) evenly distributes the
force exerted by the mass of the child to all four legs of the bed. Each
leg of the bed needs only to withstand one quarter of the total mass of
the child.

A child lying on a bed exerts A child jumping up and down

on a
a static force. bed exerts a dynamic force.

Types of Forces

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Forces can be divided into five types depending on the direction in
which they take effect on a structure. These five forces can be static or
dynamic, and they are;
1. Compression
2. Tension
3. Bending
4. Torsion
5. Shear

1. Compression
Compression forces will try to squash or pushes a member of the
structure. The parts of structures that resist compression forces are
called struts.
The legs of a stool are under compression. When somebody sits on the
stool the legs acts as struts to oppose compressive force exerted
upon them by a person’s weight.

A STRUT is a member of a structure that is under compression force.

2. Tension
Tension forces will try to stretch a member of the structure. We talk
about a tensile force. A tensile force 'pulls' or 'stretches' a member
of a structure. When this happens, the structure is said to be in
tension. The ropes that are used in holding firm a tent or a fishing line
with a fish on the hook are examples of tension. If the ropes on a tent
were cut, the tent would fall inwards and collapse, because the pulling
force or tensile force of the rope has been broken.
The parts of a structure that resist tensional forces are called ties.
The cables in a suspension bridge are under tension.

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3. Bending
Forces acting on a structure can make the structure bend. You can see
a bending force when you hold both ends of a ruler and push them
together. A fishing rod bends when a fish is caught. The fish exerts a
force at one end and the person holding the rod exerts a force on the
other. As a result, the rod bends.
When a person sits on a simple bench the seat will bend.

4. Torsion
Torsion is a twisting force that acts on a structure. You make use of
torsion when you use a corkscrew to take a cork out of a bottle, when
you turn a screw into a hole with a screwdriver or turn a nut on a bolt
using a spanner.
A structure may not be able to resist torsion. A key which breaks when
being turned in a stiff lock 'is a good example where torsion can force a
structure to fail. The key is not designed to withstand a great twisting
force in a stiff lock. Have you ever seen wind that whirls round and

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round? A whirlwind or dust devil exerts a force -torsion -on structures
that lie in its path.
The joints in the gate shown are under torsion. If they cannot resist
the torsion forces then the gate will sag.

5. Shear
Shear is a cutting force which acts upon a structure. A pair of scissors
exerts a shear force between its two blades in order to cut a piece of
paper. A bolt can be sheared into two by forces pulling either way
across its shank. The shear force is the combination of two
compressive forces acting simultaneously on a member or structure.
Equally it can be a combination of two tensile forces acting
simultaneously on a member.

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Terms to know when dealing with structures.

1. A BEAMS is a horizontal structural element that runs horizontally to

withstand vertical loads.
Beams are used a great deal in bridge construction and in buildings
where we need to span a gap and carry/support a load.

2. GUSSET: a plate which is triangulated in the corner of a frame

structure to increase the frames strength and to stop it from buckling.

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3. CANTILEVER: is a member of a structure that is supported only
at one end, eg the shelf bracket. Cantilevers are also subjected to the
forces of tension and compression .

CANTILEVE

MOMENTS OF FORCE

A moment is the “turning effect’’ of a force around a fixed point,

the pivot. Examples include a door opening around a fixed hinge,
seesaws, scissors, crane or a spanner turning around a nut.

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The principle of moments states that when in equilibrium the total
sum of the anti clockwise moment is equal to the total sum of the
clockwise moment.

Total Anticlockwise Moment = Total Clockwise Moment

Therefore; Moments = FORCE x DISTANCE

When a system is stable or balance it is said to be in equilibrium as

all the forces acting on the system cancel each other out.

A SEESAW

This principle can be explained by considering two people on a seesaw.

Both people exert a downward force on the seesaw due to their

weights.
Person A’s weight is trying to turn the seesaw anticlockwise whilst
person B’s weight is trying to turn the seesaw clockwise.

Person A’s Moment = Force x perpendicular distance from fulcrum

1000 x 1 = 1000 Nm

Person B’s Moment = Force x perpendicular distance from fulcrum

500 x 2 = 1000 Nm

Persons A’s moment = Persons B’s Moment

Anticlockwise moment = Clockwise moment

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Therefore seesaw is in equilibrium.

Here we have two kids on a see-saw, which has a weight of 200N and

⇒ The anticlockwise turning moment of the boy = 450N x 1m =

is in equilibrium

⇒ The clockwise turning moment of the girl = 300N x 1.5m = 450Nm

450Nm

 Since the clockwise and anticlockwise moments balance, the

⇒ The total weight of the see-saw and the children is 950N. The
condition of equilibrium is met

support provides an upwards force

A CRANE

Construction cranes lift heavy building materials using a horizontal arm

called a jib. To prevent the crane toppling over, concrete blocks are
suspended at the other end of the jib. They act as a counter-weight
to create a moment that opposes the moment due to the load.

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 CLASS ACTIVITY

Calculate the required positions (distance) of the loads shown to

counter-balance the crane.

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 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. The figure below shows wathuto and mashila plying on a see saw.

a) Calculate the anti clockwise and clockwise moments, Show the calculations and
the correct units. (4)

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