Chapter 4

Linear
Algebra

CHAPTER
HIGHLIGHTS
☞ Systems of linear equations
☞ Introduction
☞ Determinants

InTRODUCTIOn Column Matrix A matrix which has only one column

A set of ‘mn’ elements arranged in the form of rectangular
array having ‘m’ rows and ‘n’ columns is called an m ×  a1 
n  
a2
matrix (read as ‘m by n matrix’) and is denoted by A = A    or [aij ]n1
[aij]
where 1 ≤ i ≤ m; 1 ≤ j ≤ ⁝ 
n
 
 a11 a1 a13 a1n   an 
 
a 2 ⋯ a2n 
or A  21 Diagonal Matrix A square matrix is said to be a diagonal
a22 a23

⋯
 ⁝ ⁝ ⁝⋯ ⁝
 matrix if all its elements except those in the principal diago-
 
 am1 am2 am3 amn  nal are zeros. That is, if
⋯
The element aij lies in the ith row and jth column.
1. m = n (A is a square matrix) and
Type of Matrices 2. aij = 0 if i ≠ j (The non-diagonal elements are zeros)
Square Matrix A matrix A = [ais said to be a square A diagonal matrix of order ‘n’ with diagonal elements d ,
] 1
ij m×n d , . . . , d is denoted by Diag [d d . . . d ].
matrix, if m = n (i.e., Number of rows of A = Number of 2 n 1 2 n

columns of A) Row Matrix A matrix A = [aij]m×n is said to be row matrix,

if m = 1 (i.e., the matrix has only one row)
The elements a11, a22, a33, . . . , ann are called
‘DIAGONAL ELEMENTS’. General form is A = [a1, a2, . . ., an] or [aij]1×n
The line containing the diagonal elements is the
‘PRINCIPAL DIAGONAL’.
The sum of the diagonal elements of ‘A’ is the
‘TRACE’ of A.
Scalar Matrix A diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are
all equal is called a scalar matrix. That is, if
1. m = n
2. aij = 0 if i ≠ j
3. aij = k if i = j for some constant ‘k’.
Unit or Identity Matrix A scalar matrix of order ‘n’ in which
each diagonal element is ‘1’ (unity) is called a unit matrix
or identity matrix of order ‘n’ and is denoted by In. That
is,
2.72 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics
1. m = n Properties of Transpose
2. aij = 0 if i ≠ T − 1: (A′)′ = A, for any matrix A
j T − 2: (A + B)′ = A′ + B′, for any two matrices A, B of
3. aij = 1 if i = 1 0 0 same order
1 0 T − 3: (KA)′ = KA′, for any matrix A
j  , 
I  0 1 0
IExample: I  [1],
2  0 1  3   T − 4: (AB)′ = B′A′, for any matrices A, B such that
0 0 1
1

  number of columns of A = number of rows of B

Null Matrix or Zero Matrix A matrix is a ‘null matrix’ or (REVERSAL LAW)
zero matrix if all its elements are zeros. T − 5: (An)′ = (A′)n, for any square matrix A
Upper Triangular Matrix A square matrix is said to be an Trace of a Matrix
upper triangular matrix, if each element below the
principal diagonal is zero. That is, Let ‘A’ be a square matrix. The trace of A is defined as the
sum of elements of ‘A’ lying in the principal diagonal.
1. m = n Thus if A = [a ] then trace of ‘A’ denoted by t A = a
2. aij = 0 if i > ij n × n r 11
+ a22 . . +
j + . a .
nn
1 4 3 2 Properties of Trace of a Matrix Let A and B be any two
For example,  0 
1 6 1 square matrices and K any scalar then,
 0 0 3 2  1. t (A + B) = t A + t B
0 0 0 9 r r r
 44 2. t (KA) = Kt A
r r

Lower Triangular Matrix A square matrix is said to be a 3. tr(AB) = tr(BA)

lower triangular matrix, if each element above the
principal diagonal is zero, i.e., if Conjugate of a Matrix
1. m = n A matrix obtained by replacing each element of a matrix
2. a = 0 if i < j ‘A’ by its complex conjugate is called the ‘conjugate
matrix’ of
 where
A and is denoted by A. If A [a ] then a A 
ij
=
 1 0 0 0 ij
 ij 
2 1 0 0 a is the conjugate of ‘a ’.
ij ij
m×n,

For example,  
 05 7 8 0
4 2 1 Properties of Conjugate of a Matrix
  C  1: (( A))  Afor any matrix ‘A’
Horizontal Matrix If the number of rows of a matrix is The matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and the col-
less than the number of columns, i.e., m < n, then the umns of a given matrix ‘A’ is called the ‘transpose’ of A
matrix is called horizontal matrix. and is denoted by AT or A′. If A is an (m × n) matrix, AT will
Vertical Matrix If the number of columns in a matrix ij is
less than the number of rows, i.e., if m > n, then the matrix
n×m

is called a vertical matrix.

Comparable Matrices Two matrices A = [aij]m×n and
B
= [bij]p×q are said to be comparable, if they are of same
order, i.e., m = p; n = q.
Equal Matrices Two comparable matrices are said to be
‘equal’, if the corresponding elements are equal, i.e., A
= [aij]m×n and B = [bij]p×q are equal if
1. m = p; n = q (i.e., they are of the same order)
2. aij = bij ∀ i, j (i.e., the corresponding elements are
equal)

Transpose of a Matrix
 Chapter ■ Linear Algebra |
4 ‘A’ is obtained
Tranjugate of a matrix 2.73by transposing the
C  2: ( A  B)  A  B for any matrices A, B of same
order. conjugate of A and is denoted by Aq. Thus A  ( A)T .
C − 3 : (KA)  K A for any matrix ‘A’ and any Scalar K. Properties of Tranjugate of a Matrix
C  4: ( AB)  ( A)  for any matrices A and B with the TC − 1: (Aq )q = A for any matrix A
con- dition that number of columns of A = TC − 2: (A + B)q = Aq + Bq for any matrices A, B of the
number of rows of B. same order.
C  5: ( A)n   An for any square matrix ‘A’. TC − 3: (KA)q = KAq for any matrix A and any scalar K.
TC − 4: (BA)q = BqAq for any matrix A, B with the condi-
Tranjugate or Transposed tion that number of columns of A = number of
rows of B.
Conjugate of a Matrix
TC − 5: (An)q = (Aq)n for any square matrix ‘A’.
be an (n × m) matrix. Thus if A = then AT = [u ] , Symmetric Matrix A matrix A is said to be symmetric, if
[aij]m×n where uij = aji.
AT
= A (i.e., transpose of A = A).
2.74 | Part ■ Engineering
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NOTE S − 3: a(bA) =
A symmetric matrix must be a square matrix. (ab)A S − 4: 1A = A
Skew-symmetric Matrix A matrix ‘A’ is said to be skew- Addition of Matrices
symmetric matrix, if AT = (−A), i.e., A = is skew If A and B are two matrices of the same order, then they
[a ] metric if ij
m×n sym- are ‘conformable’ for addition and their sum ‘A + B’ is
1. m = n obtained by adding the corresponding elements of A and
B, i.e., if A = [aij]m×n; B = [bij]m×n, then A + B = [aij +
2. ajI = − aij ∀ i, j
bij]m×n.
NOTE Properties of Addition Let A, B and C be three matrices of
In a skew-symmetric matrix, all the elements of the prin- same order say m × n, then
cipal diagonal are zero. A − 1: A + B is also a m × n matrix (CLOSURE)
Orthogonal Matrix A square matrix T‘A’ ofT order n × n is A − 2: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (ASSOCIATIVITY)
said to be an orthogonal matrix, if AA = A A = I . A − 3: If ‘O’ is the m × n zero (null) matrix, then A + O
n
Involutory Matrix A square matrix ‘A’ is said to be =O
involu- tory matrix, if A = I (where I is identity matrix).
2
+ A = A (‘O’ is the ADDITIVE IDENTITY)
Idempotent Matrix A square matrix ‘A’ is said to be an A − 4: A + (−A) = (−A) + A = O (−A is the
idempotent matrix, if A2 = A. ADDITIVE INVERSE)
Nilpotent Matrix A square matrix ‘A’ is said to be A − 5: A + B = B + A (COMMUTATIVITY)
nilpotent matrix, if there exists a natural number ‘n’ such
that An = O. If ‘n’ is the least natural number such that An NOTE
= O, then ‘n’ is called the index of the nilpotent matrix The set of matrices of same order form an ‘Abelian
‘A’. (Where O is Group’ under addition.
the null matrix).
Unitary Matrix A square matrix ‘A’ is said to be a unitary Multiplication of Matrices
matrix if, AAq = AqA = I. (Where Aq is the transposed
con- jugate of A.) Let A and B be two matrices. A and B are conformable for
multiplication, only if the number of columns of A is equal
Hermitian qMatrix A matrix ‘A’ is said to be a hermitian
matrix, if A = A, i.e., A = [a ] is hermitian if to the number of rows of B.
Let A = [aij] be an m × n matrix, B = [bjk] be an n × p
matrix. Then the product ‘AB’ is defined as the matrix C
=
ij m×n [c ] of order m × p where c = a b + a b ⋯ a b
i2 2k in nk
1. m = n ik
n
ik i1 1k

2. aij  aiji, j   aij bjk .

j 1
NOTE cij calculated for i = 1, 2, . . . m and k = 1, 2, . . ., p will
The diagonal elements in a hermitian matrix are real
give
numbers.
S − 1: a(A + B) = aA +
Skew-hermitian Matrix A matrix ‘A’ is said to be a skew- aB S − 2: (a + b)A = aA +
bA
hermitian matrix, if Aq = −A.

Operations on Matrices
Scalar Multiplication of Matrices
If A is a matrix of order m × n and ‘K’ be any scalar (a
real or complex number), then KA is defined to be a m ×
n matrix whose elements are obtained by multiplying each
element of ‘A’ by K, i.e., if A = [aij]m×n then KA = [Kaij]m×n
in
particular if K = −1; then KA = −A is called the negative
of
A and is such that,
A + (−A) = [aij] + [−aij] = [aij − aij] = [0] = O (zero
matrix) (−A) + A = [−aij] + [aij] = [−aij + aij] = [0] = O
That is, A + (−A) = (−A) + A = O.
Properties of Scalar Multiplication
Let A, B are two matrices of same order and a, b are any
scalars, then
 Chapter ■ Linear Algebra |
all the elements of the matrix C. 4 2.75
Properties of Multiplication
M − 1: If A, B, C be m × n, n × p, p × q matrices
respec- tively, then (AB)C = A(BC)
(ASSOCIATIVITY).
M − 2: If A is a m × n matrix, then A In = A and Im A =
A and if A is a square matrix, i.e., m = n, then AI
= IA = A (I is the MULTIPLICATIVE
IDENTITY).
M − 3: If A, B, C be m × n, n × p, p × q matrices
respectively, then A(B + C) = AB + AC
(DISTRIBUTIVE LAW).
M − 4: Matrix multiplication is NOT
COMMUTATIVE
in general.
M − 5: The INVERSE of a given matrix may not always
exist.

DETERmInAnTs
Let A = [aij] be a square matrix of order ‘n’. Then the
deter- minant of order ‘n’ associated with ‘A’ is denoted
by | A | or
|aij| or Det(A) or D.
NOTES
1. Determinant of a matrix exists, only if it is a square
matrix.
2. The value of a determinant is a single number.
 2.76 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics
Determinant of Order 1 (or First
Order Determinant) a1 b1 c1
Let   a2 b2 c2
If ‘a’ be any number, then determinant of ‘a’ is of order
‘1’ and is denoted by |a|. The value of |a| = a. a3 b3
c3
Determinant of Order 2 (or
Enter the first column and then the second column after the
Second Order Determinant)
third column and take the product of numbers as shown by
the arrows, taking care of signs indicated
If ‘A’ is a square matrix of order 2 given a1 b1 c1 a1 b1
by  b1  b1
aA1 a1 then Det ( A)  is determinant of a2 b2 c2 a2 b2

 
 a2 b  a2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3
2 b2

order 2 and its value is D = a1b2 − a2b1

Minor and Cofactor of a Matrix Then
D = a1b2c3 + b1c2a3 + c1a2b3 − a3b2c1 − b3c2a1 − c3a2b1
 a1 b1 c1 
  We can now define the cofactor of an element aij in a 4 × 4
Let A  a2 b2 c2  be a 3 3 matrix as (−1)i+j × (Determinant of the 3 × 3 matrix
a b obtained by deleting the i-th row and j-th column) and
 3 3 matrix determinant of a 4 × 4 matrix to be the sum of products of
c3  elements of any
Then the minor of an element aij of ‘A’ is the determinant row (or column) by their corresponding cofactors. We can
of the 2 × 2 matrix obtained after deleting the i-th row and similarly define determinant of a square matrix of any
j-th column of A and is denoted by Mij.
order.
The cofactor of aij is denoted by Aij and is defined as
(−1)i+j M , i.e., A = (−1)i+j M Properties of Determinant
ij ij ij

Determinant of Order 3 (Third 1. If two rows (or columns) of a determinant are

interchanged, the value of the determinant is multiplied
Order Determinant) by (−1).
If A is a square matrix of order ‘3’, given by 2. If the rows and columns of a determinant are
 a1 b1 c1  interchanged, the value of the determinant remains
 
unchanged, i.e., Det(A) = Det(AT).
3. If all the elements of a row (or column) of a
A   a2 b22 . Then the determinant of ‘A’ is given by
a b determinant are multiplied by a scalar (say ‘K’), the value
 3 3 c3  of the new determinant is equal to ‘K’ times the
a1 b1 c1 value of the original determinant.
  Det A  a2 b2 c2 is a determinant of order 3 4. If two rows (or columns) of a determinant are
and identical, then the value of the determinant is zero.
a3 b3 c3 5. If the elements of a row (or a column) in a
the value is obtained by taking the sum of the products of determinant are proportional to the elements of any
the elements of any row (or column) by their other row (or column), then the determinant is ‘0’.
corresponding cofactors. 6. If every element of any row (or column) is zero, then
Thus for A, D = ab1A1 + b1B1 + c1C1 determinant is ‘0’.
2
a c2 a2 c2 a2 7. If each element in a row (or column) of a determinant
b b2  c is
1 1 1
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3 the sum of two terms, then its determinant can be
expressed as the sum of two determinants of the
or also D = a1A1 + a2A2 + a3A3
b2 same order.
a c2 b1 c1 b1 c1 8. (The theorem of ‘false cofactor’) The sum of products
1  a2  a3
b3 c3 b3 c3 b2 c2 of elements of a row (or column) with the cofactors of any
(This is by expanding by C1) and so on. other row (or column) is zero.
The sign to be used before a particular element can be +−+  a1 b1
judged by using the following rule: −+−

 Chapter ■ Linear Algebra |
 c 4 2.77
Thus in A  a2 b2 
1   cc2
a b 3
3 3   
+−+ a1A2 + b1B2 + c1C2 = 0
The value of the determinants of order 3 can also be evalu- a2A1 + b2B1 + c2C1 = 0 and so on in general
ated by using ‘Sarrus’ method given as follows:
arAs + brBs + crCs = 0 if r ≠ s
2.78 | Part ■ Engineering
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9. If the elements of a determinant are polynomials in x
and the determinant vanishes for x = a, then x − a Results
is a factor of the determinant. 1. If ‘A’ is of order 3 × 3 and K is any number, then
Adj(KA) = K ²(Adj A).
Singular and Non-singular Matrices 2. A(Adj A) = (Adj A)A = |A| I for any square matrix
A square matrix ‘A’ is said to be singular, if Det(A) = 0 ‘A’.
and is non-singular, if Det(A) ≠ 0. 3. Adj I = I; Adj O = O where I is the identity matrix
and
NOTES O is the null matrix.
1. A unit matrix is non-singular (since its Det = 1) 4. Adj(AB) = (Adj B) (Adj A) if A, B are non-singular
2. If A and B are non-singular matrices of the same and are of same type.
‘type’, then AB is non-singular of the same ‘type’.
5. If A = An ×n, then
det(Adj A) = (det A)n–
Inverse of a Matrix 1
.
Let ‘A’ be a square matrix. A matrix ‘B’ is said to be an Adj(Adj A) = (det A)n–2(A).
inverse of ‘A’, if AB = BA = I. |Adj(Adj A)| = (det A)(n–1)2
NOTE Evaluating Inverse of a Square Matrix
If B is the inverse of ‘A’, then ‘A’ is the inverse of ‘B’. 1
If A is a square matrix, then A1  (Adj A)
A
Some Results of Inverse
1. Inverse of a square matrix, when it exists, is unique. NOTES
1. The inverse of an identity matrix is itself.
2. The inverse of a square matrix exists, if and only if
it is non-singular. 1
2. (Adj A)1  A
3. If ‘A’ and ‘B’ are square matrices of the same order, A
then ‘AB’ is invertible (i.e., inverse of AB exists) if 3. If A is a non-singular square matrix (say of order 3)
‘A’ and ‘B’ are both invertible. and K is any non-zero number, then
4. If ‘A’ and ‘B’ are invertible matrices of the same 1
(KA)1  A1
order, then (AB)−1 = B−1 A−1. K
5. If A is invertible, then so is AT and (AT)−1 = (A−1)T.
6. If A is invertible, then so is Aq and (Aq)−1 = (A−1)q. Rank and Nullity of a Matrix
Rank of a Matrix The Matrix ‘A’ is said to be of rank ‘r’,
Adjoint of a Matrix if and only if it has at least one non-singular square sub-
The adjoint of a square matrix ‘A’ is the transpose of the matrix of order ‘r’ and all square sub-matrices of order (r
matrix obtained by replacing the elements of ‘A’ by their + 1) and higher orders are singular. The rank of a matrix
corresponding cofactors. A is denoted by rank (A) or r(A).
Nullity of a Matrix If A is a square matrix of order ‘n’,
NOTE then n − r(A), i.e., n − rank (A) is defined as nullity of
The adjoint is defined only for square matrices and matrix ‘A’ and is denoted by N(A).
the adjoint of a matrix ‘A’ is denoted by Adj(A). If Remark 1: If there is a non-singular square sub-matrix of
order ‘K’, then r(A) ≥ K.
 a1 a2 ⋯ an
Remark 2: If there is no non-singular square sub-matrix of
A b1 b2 ⋯ bn order ‘K’, then r(A) < K.
⁝ ⁝ ⁝ ⁝
 Remark 3: If A′ is the transpose of A, then r(A) = r(A′).
 l1 l2 ⋯ ln Remark 4: The rank of a null matrix is ‘0’.
A A2 ⋯ A T  A1 B1 ⋯ L  Remark 5: The rank of a non-singular square matrix of

1
   order ‘n’ is ‘n’ and its nullity is ‘0’.
Adj
A B2 ⋯ Bnn B2 ⋯ L12 
   Remark 6: Elementary operations do not change the rank
B1 ⁝ ⁝ A⁝2 ⁝   ⁝ ⁝ ⁝ ⁝ 
   ⋯ L  of a matrix.
 L1 L2 ⋯ Ln   An Bn n Remark 7: If the product of two matrices A and B is
defined, then r(AB) ≤ r(A) and r(AB) ≤ r(B). That is, the
rank of product of two matrices cannot exceed the rank of
either of them.
 Chapter ■ Linear Algebra |
4 2.79
Elementary Operations or
1 3 2 
Elementary Transformations  
Example: B   3 4 4 
1. Elementary row operations
1 1 6
(a) Ri ↔ Rj: Interchanging of ith and jth rows
(b) R → KR : Multiplication of every element of ith  1 0 1 
i
i 1  
row with a non-zero scalar K C2  3C1, C3 ~ 3 5 2  C (say)
(c) Ri → Ri + kRj: Addition of k times the elements 2 1 2 6 
of C is a column equivalent to B.
jth row to the corresponding elements of ith row. Row Reduced Matrix A matrix A of order m × n is said to
2. Elementary column operations
(a) Ci ↔ C j: Interchanging of ith and jth columns
be row reduced if,
(b) Ci → KCi: Multiplication of every element of ith
column with a non-zero scalar K. 1. The first non-zero element of a non-zero row is 1.
(c) Ci → Ci + KCj: Addition of K times the 2. Every other element in the column in which such 1’s
elements of jth column to the corresponding occur is 0.
elements of
ith column. 2 3 4 1  1 0 2 
Example:  
Consider the matrix A  3 0 1 5 A  0 1 3 is a row reduced matrix
   
4 7 1 2 0 0 0
 
2 3  4 1 1 0 4
R → 2R    
~ 6 0 2 10 B  0 5 0 is not a row reduced matrix.
2    0 0 0 
2
4 7 1 2 
 

C↔C ~ 2  4 3 1 Row Reduced Echelon Matrix A matrix ‘X ’ is said to be

3 1 0 5 row reduced echelon matrix if,
2 3  
4 1 7 2 1. X is row reduced.
 4 3 1 2. There exists integer P(0 ≤ p ≤ m) such that first ‘p’
~  0 rows of X are non-zero and all the remaining rows
C →C – 7 1 0 5
2C are
1 1 4   zero rows.
 0 1 7 2 3. For the ith non-zero row, if the first non-zero
NOTE element of the row (i.e., 1) occurs in the jth column
then, j1 <
j <j <...<j.
The rank of a matrix is invariant under elementary 2 3 p

operations  1 0 0 0 12  2 0
Row and Column Equivalence Matrices 0 1 0

3 ;
 
Row Equivalence Matrix If B is a matrix obtained by Example: P  0 0 1 4 Q 0 0 0 1
 0 0 0 0 

applying a finite number of elementary row operations 0 0 0 0  
successively 
on matrix A, then matrix B is said to be row
equivalent to A (or a row equivalent matrix of A). are echelon matrices. The number of non-zero rows (i.e.,
value of P and Q) are 3 and 2 respectively. The value of i
Column Equivalence Matrix If B is obtained by applying
and j are tabulated below
a finite number of elementary column operations
successively on matrix A, then matrix B is said to be i 1 2 3 i 1 2
P: Q:
column equivalent to A (or a column equivalent matrix of j 1 2 3 j 2 4
A ).
Normal form of a Matrix
1 3 4 
  By means of elementary transformations, every matrix ‘A’
Example: A  2 5 2  of order m × n and rank r (> 0) can be reduced to one of
1 4 3 the following forms.
2.80 | Part ■ Engineering
II 1 3
Mathematics 4   Ir 0  Ir 
R2  2R1, R3  R1 ~ 0 1 10  B (say) 1.   2. [Ir/0] 3. [Ir] 4.  
  0 0 0
 0 1 7  and these are called the normal forms. Ir is the unit matrix
B is a row equivalent matrix of of order ‘r’.
A.
 Chapter ■ Linear Algebra |
4 2.81
NOTE When the system of equations has one or more solutions,
the equations are said to be CONSISTENT and the system
If a m × n matrix ‘A’ has been reduced to the normal
of equations are said to be INCONSISTENT if it does not
form Ir 0
admit any solution. The system of equations (1) is said to
say then ‘r’ is the rank of
 0 0
 be
HOMOGENEOUS, if B = 0
NON-HOMOGENEOUS, if B ≠ 0
Let the system of equations be
SysTEms Of LInEAR a x +a x +...+a x =b
EqUATIOns 11 1 12 2 1n n 1
Let a11x1  a12 x2 ⋯ a1n Xn a x + x +...+ x = b
 b1  a a
a
 x  a x ⋯  a X  b 12 1 22 2 2n n 2

21 1 22 2 2n n 2 ................................
. . .  ................................
. . aa x + a x + . . . + x = b
 m1 1 m2 2 mn n m
. . . 
 This is a system of ‘m’ equations in ‘n’ variables x , x , . . . ,
an1x1  an2 x2 ⋯ ann xn  (1) x . The system of equations can be written as AX =1 2
bn

n
B where
be a system of ‘n’ linear equations in ‘n’ variables x1, x2, . . . ,
a a ⋯ a   x1   b1 
xn. The above system of equations can be written 11 12 1n    
as  
a a a ⋯ x b
a22 a2n  , X   2  , B   2 
 x   b  A
a21 ⋯
1 1
11 12      ⁝ ⁝ ⁝ ⁝  ⁝ 
 1n  
 a21 a22 ⋯ a2n  x2  b2  a a a  x  b 

 ⁝ ⁝  AX   m1 m2 mn   n   m 

 ⁝ or ⁝ 
 ⁝ B
   
 an2 ⋯ ann  xn   bn   a12 ⋯ b1 
an1 a11 a1n
 
where The matrix  a21 a22 ⋯ b  is called the augmented
a2n 2

 ⁝ ⁝ ⁝ 
a a ⋯a  x  b  a a ⋯a b 
1 1
11 12 1n
     m1 m2 mn m
 
a22 ⋯a2n  , X   x2  , B   matrix of the system of equations and is denoted by [A : B].
A 
 b2 
a21
 ⁝ ⁝ ⁝ ⁝ ⁝  Let AX = B represents ‘m’ linear equations with ‘n’
 
      variables. Let rank of A = r and rank (A, B) = [where (A,
r
a a
 n1 n2 ⋯ a nn   xn   bn B) is an augmented matrix]. If r ≠ r 1


1
, then the system of
A is called the co-efficient matrix. equations are inconsistent.
Any set of values of x , x , x , . . . which If r1 = r, the table
simultaneously
follows:
1 2 3
satisfy these equations is called a solution of the system.
2.82 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics
m=n m>n m<n
r=n r<n r=n r<n r=m r<m
Homo-
Only trivial Infinite Only trivial Infinite Infinite Infinite solutions
geneous
solution solutions solution solutions solutions
Non-homo
geneous Unique solution Infinite Unique solution Infinite Infinite Infinite solutions
solutions solutions solutions

Solving System of Linear

x1 = D1/D; x2 = D2/D; x3
Equations
= D3/D; . . .; xn = Dn/D.
The following methods of solving system of linear equa-
tions (1) is applicable only when the co-efficient matrix
‘A’ is non singular, i.e., | A | ≠ 0.
Inverse Method
Cramers Method Let the system of linear equations be AX = B, where A, X,
Let AX = B represent the system of equations (1) where A, B
X are as defined earlier.
and B are as defined earlier. If |A| ≠ 0 then pre-multiplying with A−1, we get A−1
Let D be | A | and D1, D2, . . . , Dn be the determinants (AX)
obtained by replacing the elements of 1st, 2nd, . . . , nth = A−1B.
column of A by the elements of B. Then if D ≠ 0, we have ⇒ X = A−1B which gives the values of the variables.
 Chapter ■ Linear Algebra |
4 2.83
Gauss−Jordan Method NOTE
Consider the augmented matrix [A : B] of the system of ‘n’ The maximum number of linearly independent rows or
non-homogeneous equations (1) in n-variables columns of a matrix is called the rank of the matrix.
a11
 a12 ⋯ a1n b1
a21  LU Decomposition Method of
a22 ⋯ 
a2n b2 Factorisation or Method of
 Triangularization
⁝ ⁝ ⁝ 
  Consider the system of equations
 an1 an2 ⋯ ann bn 
a11x1  a12 x2  a13x3  b1 
Reduce this augmented matrix to the standard form a x  a x  a x  b (1)

1 0 ⋯ 0 d1 
a21x1  a22 x2  a23 x3  2b 
31 1 32 2 33 3 3
  
0 1⋯ 0
 ⁝ ⁝ ⁝ d2  In matrix notation, Eq. (1) can be written as AX = B (2)
 
0 0 ⋯ 1 d a11 a2 1 a13   x1  b1 
 n      
By applying the elementary operations, the solution of the where A a23  , X   x2  and B  b2 
a22
a21
equations is a3 a3 a33  x3 b3 
x =d,x =d,...,x =
d. 1 2  
1 1 2 2 n n

Gauss Elimination Method Step 1: Write A = LU, where L → Lower triangular

matrix with principal diagonal elements being equal to 1
Let the system of linear equations given and U → Upper triangular matrix.
by
a11x1  a12 x2 ⋯ a1n xn 1 0 0 u11 u1 u13 
 c1  2
ax x  a   
 That is, L  1 0 and U  u22 u23
⋯
x a  c 
l21 0
21 1 22 2 2n n 2    
a31x1  a32 x2 ⋯ a3n xn  c3 l31 l32 1  0 0 u33 



. . . .  (1) Step 2: Now Eq. (2) becomes LUX = B (3)
. . . . 
 Step 3: Let UX = Y (4)
.a . . . 
n1x1  an2 x2 ⋯  ann xn  cn  y1 

  
Let a ≠ 0 write the above equations in the matrix form AX where Y   y2
11
=B  y3 
Write the augmented matrix [A B]. Step 4: Combining Eqs. (3) and (4), we get LY = B (5)
Using elementary row operations, eliminate the unknown On solving Eq. (5) we get y1, y2, y3.
x1 from all the equations except the first. Eliminate the
Step 5: Substituting Y in Eq. (4), we get UX = Y
unknown x2 from all the equations except from first and On solving, we get X, i.e., x , x , x .
second rows, continuing in this way we finally get the fol- 1 2 3

lowing equivalent system of equations at the (n − 1)th

step.
a′ x + a′ x + a′ x + . . . + a′ x = c The Characteristic Equation of a Matrix
′
11 1 12 2 13 3 1n n 1 Characteristic Matrix If A is any square matrix, the matrix
a′ x22 + . . . + a′ x = c′ a′ x + . . . + a′ x = c′
2 2n n 2

33 3 3n n 3
2.84 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics ′ x = c′
a nn n n A − lI where l is a scalar, is called the characteristic
From the above system of equations we can find the values matrix of A.
of the unknowns. Characteristic Polynomial If A is any square matrix of
order n, then the determinant | A− lI | yields a polynomial
Linear Dependence f(l) of degree n in l which is known as the
characteristic
A set of vectors of n dimensions is said to be linearly polynomial of the matrix A.
dependent if one of these vectors can be expressed as a lin-
ear combination of some other vectors in the set. Characteristic Equation If f(l) is the characteristic
polynomial of a matrix A, then f(l) = 0, is called the
If no vector can be expressed as a linear combination characteristic equation of A.
of the others, then the set of vectors is said to be linearly
And the roots of this equation, say l1, l2, . . . , ln are
independent.
called the characteristic roots or latent roots or eigen
values. If l is a characteristic root of ordert, then t is
called the algebraic multiplicity of l.
 Chapter ■ Linear Algebra |
4 2.85
Characteristic Vectors Corresponding to each characteristic
root l, there is a non-zero vector which satisfies the Procedure to Reduce a Square
character- istic equation | A − lI | = 0. These non-zero Matrix into Diagonal Form
vectors are called the characteristic vectors or eigen
vectors or latent vectors. Let A be a square matrix of order n that can be reduced to
diagonal form
NOTES 1. Find the eigen values and their corresponding eigen
1. The characteristic roots of a matrix and its transpose vectors of A. Let l , l , l , . . .be , lthe eigen values
are the same. and let X , X , X 1 2 3 n

1 2 3
, . . ., Xn be their corresponding eigen
2. 0 is a characteristic roots of a matrix, if the matrix is vectors that are linearly independent.
singular. 2. Form the matrix P with X , X , X , . . ., X as its
columns
3. The characteristic roots of a triangular matrix are just 1 2 3 n

the diagonal elements of the matrix. i.e., P = [X1 X2 X3 … Xn] it can be easily observed that
4. If K is any scalar, the characteristic roots of matrix P is invertible.
KA 3. Find the inverse of P (i.e., find P−1)
are K times the characteristic roots of matrix A. 4. The diagonal form of A is given by D = P−1 AP.
5. If a1, a2, a3, . . ., an are characteristic roots of matrix 1
0 0 ⋯ 0 
A and K is a scalar, then the characteristic roots of  
Where D   0 2 0 0  is a diagonal matrix
matrix A − KI are a1 − K, a2 − K, . . ., an − K. ⋯
6. If l is a characteristic root of a non-singular ⁝ ⁝ ⁝ ⁝ ⁝ 
matrix, then l−1 is a characteristic root of A−1.  
 0 0 0 ⋯  n 
7. If the eigen values2 of A are l , l , . . ., ln then the
values of A² are 1l , 2l 2, . . .,n 1 2 with eigen values of A as its principal diagonal elements.
l .2
NOTE
Here P is called the modal matrix and D is the spectral
Cayley−Hamilton Theorem matrix of the matrix A
Every square matrix satisfies its characteristic equation.
Power of a Matrix by Using its
Inverse by Cayley−Hamilton Theorem
Let A be non-singular square matrix of order n
Diagonal Form
Let the characteristic equation of A be If D is the diagonal form of a square matrix A, then for any
positive integer n, we have An = P Dn P−1.
|A − lI| = (−1)n ln + 1C ln–1 + 2C ln–2 + . . . +n–1C ln + Where P is the modal matrix of A.
C=0
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Where C1, C2, . . ., Cn are all scalar constants
Then by Cayley−Hamilton theorem Example 1
Find the value of
(−1)nAn + C An–1 + C An–2 + . . . + C A + C I = O (1) a  b  2c a b
1 2 n–1 n

Multiplying Eq. (1) throughout by A−1, we c b  c  2a b .

have
A−1[(−1)n An –1 + c a c  a  2b
C An–2 + . . . +
An–1 + A+ C I ] = A−1 .
1 Solution
2 C
0
C n–1 n
⇒ (−1) A + An–2 + An–3 + . . . +
n n–1
I+C c→c+c+c
C C C A−1
 1 1 2 n–1 n 1 1 2 3
 A1  [(1)n An1  C An2  C An3 ⋯ C I] 2(a  b  c) a b
1 2 n1
Cn 2(a  b  b  c  2a b
NOTE c) 2(a  b a c  a  2b
Similarly, we can find A−2, A−3, . . . for the matrix Ax pro-  c)
vided A is non-singular.
1 a b
 2(a  b  c) b  c  2a b
Power of a Matrix by 1
a c  a 
Cayley−Hamilton 1 2b R → R − R
Theorem 3 3 1

R2 → R2 − R1
2.86 | Part ■ Engineering
Cayley−Hamilton
II theorem is also helpful in finding higher
Mathematics 1 a b
powers of a square matrix with least possible number of
matrix 2(a  b  c) 0 a  b  c 0
multiplications. This is explained in Examples 11 and 12.
0 0 abc
Reduction to Diagonal Form 1 a b
If A is a square matrix of order n with n linearly  2(a  b  c) 0 1 0  2(a  b  c)3.
3

independent eigen vectors, then A can be reduced to a

diagonal matrix, called diagonal form of A. 0 0 1
 Chapter ■ Linear Algebra |
4 2.87
Example
⇒ x(1, 3, 2) + y(1, −4, 1) + z(−1, 2, 5)
2
3 1 2 = (0, 0, 0) only when x = 0, y = 0, z = 0.
  \ The set of vectors are linearly independent.
Find the rank of the matrix 2 0 1 .
1 4 1 Example 4
 Show that the set of vectors {(2, 3, 9), (3, −2, −6), (−1, 5,
Solution 15)} are linearly dependent.
Given Solution
3 1 2 1 4 1 
    Let x, y, z e R such that
2 0 1 R  R 2 0 1
 x(2, 3, 9) + y(3, −2, −6) + z(−1, 5, 15) = (0, 0, 0)
 1 3
3 1 2
1 4 1 
2x  3y  z  0
 3x  2 y  5z  0
R2 → R2 − 2R1 and R3 → R3 −
3R1 9x  6 y 15z 
0
1 4 1
 
~ 0 8 3 The above system when expressed in matrix form we have
0 11 5 the coefficient matrix
  2 3 1
1 4 1  
A  3 2 5

R3  R3  11    
R2 ~ 0 8 3  9 6 15
8  7 
0 0  2 3 1
 8
which is a row echelon form. The number of non zero rows 3 2 5  0
= 3. 9 6 15
The rank of the matrix = The number of non-zero rows
in 2 3
it = 3 as R3  3R2 and 0
\ Rank of the matrix = 3 2
3.

Example 3 \ Rank of A = 2 < the number of variables which is 3.

Find whether the vectors given below are linearly \ The system will possess a non-zero solution, i.e.,
dependent or independent {(1, 3, 2), (1, −4, 1), (−1, 2, 2x  3y  z  0
5)}.
3x  2 y  5z  0
Solution x y z  k (say)
Let x, y, z ∈ R such that x(1, 3, 2) + y(1, − 4, 1) + z(−1, 
 3 10 4  9
2,
15  2
5) = (0, 0, ⇒ x = 13k, y = −13k and z = −13k
0) xyz0 Let k = 1 ⇒ x = 13, y = −13, z = −13
 3x  4 y  2z  0 } (1) \ There exists a non-zero solution such that x, y, z e R
2x  y  5z  0 x(2, 3, 9) + y(3, −2, −6) + z(−1, 5, 15) = (0, 0, 0)
The above system of equations when expressed in \ The set of given vectors are linearly dependent.
determinant form, we have
Example 5
1 1 1 1 1 1 How many solutions are there for the system of linear equa-
3 4 2 R  3R ,R 7 5 tions x + 2y + z = 0, 3x + 2y − z = 0 and 4x + y − 3z = 0?
 2  1
 2R 3
 1  0
2 1 5 1 R3 7  0
R2

2.88 | Part ■ Engineering
II 1 Mathematics
0 nt of the co-efficient matrix of the given equations
1 Solution
7 1 1 2 1
7 5 Determina
is 3 2 1
44
0 0 4 1 3
7
= 1(−6 + 1) −2(−9 + 4) +1(3 − 8) = 0
\ Rank = 3 = number of unknowns
\ The system has infinite number of solutions.
\ There exists a unique solution x = 0, y = 0 and z
=0
 Chapter ■ Linear Algebra |
4 2.89
Example 6
Augmented matrix,
Solve the system of equations
1 1 6 1
x1 + x2 + x3 = 1, 3x1 + x2 − 3x3 = 5 and x1 − 2x2 − 5x3 = 10  
[ AB] is  3 2 1 4 
by
LU decomposition method.
 2 3 2 2 
Solution R2 → R2 −3R1, and R3 → R3 − 2R1
1 1 1   x1 1  1 1 1 6 

  
 B
AX 3 3  x2    5 
1 ~ 5 4 22
0
      
1 2 5   x3 10
  0 1 4 10
 
Step 1: LU =
A R →R 1 and R → R 1
+ R + R
1 1
5 2 3 3
5 2

1 0 0 u1 u13  1 1 1  1 8 
u11 2 1 0
     
 l21 1 0 0 u22 u23  3 1 3 5 5 
      
l3 l32 1  0 0 u33 1 2  ~ 5 4 22 
72
5 
 0 24
1 
and on solving we get, u11 = 1, u = 1, u =  0 0   
Expanding 12 13  5 5
1,
u = −2, 
u = −6, u = 3,
l
 3,
l 3 1, l  5 5
R3
22 23
33 21 31 32 R2  R3  R2 ; R3  24
2 6
Step 2: Now LUX =
B Step 3: Let UX =  1 8 
Y Step 4: \ LY = B  1 0 5 5 

~ 0 5 0 10 

 0 0 1 3 


 1 0 0  y1   1  1 1

 3 1 0 y    R1  R3 and R2  R2
   2   5 5 5
 3   y3 10
1 1 1 1 0 0 1
  R  R  0 1 0 2
 2 
On solving, y = 1, y = 2 and = 2 2  
y 6. 5
1 2 3
0 0 1 3
Step 5: UX = Y
\ Solution is x = 1, y = 2 and z = 3.
 1 1 1   x1    1
0 2 6 x2  2 Example 8
    
0 0 3   x3  Solve 3x + 2y − z = 0, 4x + y + 2z = 0 and x − 5y + 7z = 0.
6

On solving we get x1 = 6, x2 = −7 and x3 = 2 Solve: x + y + z = 6, 3x − 2y − z = −4 and 2x + 3y −2z = 2.

\ The solution is (6, −7, 2).

Example 7
2.90 | Part ■ Engineering
II
Solution Mathematics 3 2 1
Determinant of the co-efficient matrix of the when written in matrix form is 4 1 2
equations
1 5 7
Solution
= 3(7 + 10) −2(28 − 2) −1(−20 − 1)
1 1 1 = 51 − 52 + 21 = 20
A  3 2 1  1(7) 1( 4) 1(9  4)  \ The given system of equations have only one solution,
0
2 3 2 i.e., x = y = z = 0.

\ The set of given equations are non-homogeneous and the Example 9

number of equations is equal to the number of Determine the eigen values and eigen vectors of
variables.
\unique
The given system of equations is consistent and has a 2 4
solution. A  3 3  .
 
 Chapter ■ Linear Algebra |
4 2.91
Solution
⇒ l3 − 12l2 + 36l − 32 = 0
Characteristic equation of the given matrix is | A − l | =
l = 2, 2, 8
0
2 4
  \ Eigen values are 2, 2, 8.
0
3 3
Example 11
⇒ l2 − 5l − 6 = 4 2
0

(l − 6)(l + 1) = 0 If A   16
 , then find A by4using
7 Cayley−Hamilton 
⇒ l = −1 and l = 6 are the eigen values. Eigen
vector theorem.
corresponding to l = −1 is obtained as
Solution
follows: The characteristic equation of
 2 4   1 0   x1   0
 1 
       
 3 3   0 1  x2   0 4 2
 3 4  x   0 
A  is | A  I |  0
1  7  4 
      
 3 4  x2  0  4   2 
  0
 
⇒ 3x1 + 4x2 = 0  
7 4  
4
3x1 + = 0 ⇒ x1 =  x ⇒ (4 − l)(− 4 − l) + 14 = 0
4x2 3
2 ⇒ −16 − 4l + 4l + l2 + 14 = 0
\ Eigen vector corresponding to l = −1 ⇒ l2 − 2 = 0 (1)
is,
x 
4  4 By Cayley−Hamilton theorem, the matrix A satisfies its
x2
X  
1
x  3  characteristic equation (1).
2
3
 x2   x2   
 1 
\ A2 − 2I = O
1 0 0 0
obtained eigen vector corresponding to l = 6 is
Similarly where I  and O 
   
0 1 0 0
as follows:    
 2 4   1 0   x
 1 0 ⇒ A2 = 2I (2)
 6       Now A16 = (A2)8 = (2I)8 (From Eq. (2))
 3 3   0 1   x2  0  1 0
 28 I 8  256I  256

 4 4  x1   0   
  0 1
 3 x    0 
 3
  2    256 0 
⇒ − 4x + 4x = 0 and 3x − 3x = \ A16  
0 
1 2 1 2
 0 256
⇒ x1 = x2
Eigen vector corresponding to l = 6 is, Example 12
 x1   x2 1 2 0 3
  
      x 2  . If A  0 5 ; then find the value of the
X x 1 4
 2 x  2     
2.92 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics 0 1 0 
Example 10
matrix polynomial 3A9 − 18A8 + 39A7 − 32A6 + 12A5
Find the eigen values of the matrix – 26A4 + 16A3 + 24A2 − 50A + 40I.
6 2 2 
  2 3 1
A Solution
.  
2 1 3 The characteristic equation of
 
2 0 3
Solution  
A  0 4 5  is | A − l I | = 0
Characteristic equation of the given matrix is A    0 1 0 
0

6 2 2
2 0 3
 2 3 1   0 4 5  0
0
2 1 3 0 1 
 Chapter ■ Linear Algebra |
4 2.93
⇒ (2 − l) {(4 − l)(−l) + 5} = 0 Now consider the given matrix polynomial
⇒ (2 − l) {(l2 − 4l + 5)} = 0 3A9 − 18A8 + 39A7 − 32A6 + 12A5 − 26A4 + 16A3 + 24A2
⇒ 2l2 − 8l + 10 − l3 + 4l2 − 5l = 0. −
⇒ − l3 + 6l2 − 13l + 10 = 0 50A + 40I
⇒ l3 − 6l2 + 13l − 10 = 0 (1) = 3A9 − 18A8 + 39A7 − 30A6 − 2A6 + 12A5 − 26A4 + 20A3
By Cayley−Hamilton theorem, the matrix A will satisfy its – 4A3 + 24A2 − 52A + 2A + 40I
characteristic Eq. (1) = 3A6 (A3 − 6A2 + 13A − 10I ) − 2A3(A3 − 6A2 + 13A −
\ A3 − 6A2 + 13A − 10I = O, 10I)
– 4(A3 − 6A2 + 13A − 10I) + 2A
= 3A6 × 0 − 2A3 × 0 − 4 × 0 +
2A
1 0 0 (From Eq. (2))
 0 0 0
  2 0 3  4 0 6 
where l  0 1 0 and O  0 0 0 
    4 2 A  2 0 5  0 8 10 .
0 0 1 0 0 0    
\ A3 − 6A2 + 13A − 10I = 0 (2) 0 1 0 0 2 0 


ExERCIsEs
1. Which of the following is false?
(A) Every diagonal matrix is a square matrix. a1 a1 a1
(B) Every unit matrix is a scalar matrix. 6. If D 1 2 3
, then which of the following is
(C) Every square matrix is a diagonal matrix. = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
(D) Every scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix. true? (Here, Aij is the cofactor of the element aij)
 1 a12 ⋯ a1n 
a 2 ⋯ a (A) a11 A11 + a21 A12 + a23 A32 = D
2. If the trace of the matrix  21 2n 55 (B) a A + a +a A =D
 ⁝ ⁝ ⁝ ⁝ A 12
(C) 11 11 12 13 13
a21 A12 + a23 A32 + a12 A21 = D
 
then the value of n is  an2 ⋯ n  (D) a12 A21 + a21 A12 + a31 A13 = D
an1
(A) 10 (B) 11 2 3 3 
(C) 9 (D) Cannot be  
determined
7. The determinant value of  1 2 2  is
 
3. Which of the following statement is/are false? 7 4 4 
(A) AT . BT always defined for square matrices of
same order. (A) 0 (B) 10
(B) AT ⋅ B is defined for matrices of the same order. (C) −10 (D) 15
(C) t (AT) + t (BT) is always defined for matrices A, B n! (n 1)! (n  2)!
of
r r

same order. 8. The value of (n 1)! n  2! (n  3)! is

(D) AT + BT is always defined for matrices A, B of
same order. (n  2)! (n  3)! (n  4)!
4. Consider the following statements about two square (A) 2n! (n + 1)!
matrices A and B of the same order: (B) 2n! (n + 1)! (n + 2)!
P:2 (A + B)2 = A2 + 2AB + 2 (C) (2n)! (n + 1)! (n + 2)!
B Q: (A + B) (A − B) = A
− B2 (D) 2n! (n + 3)!
Then, (C) both P and xC = 2x xC
0 1
(A) both P and Q are true. Q are true if 9. If C1 x
2 C2
(B) both P and Q are false A and B f(x)
x
6 2 C x
commute 6 C3
2.94 | Part ■ Engineering
II x 1C1 Mathematics 2( x 1) C2 6( x C3
1) , then f (200) is
(D) P is true but Q is false. (A) 200 (B) −200
 2 1 2   2x 3 x  (C) 0 (D) −2001
  
5. If 1 0 1 x 2 0 = , then x 2 3i 1
I =
 2 2 1   2 2x x 
 3 ×3
10. The determinant 3  0 1 i is
i
  
(A) −1 (B) 1 1 1 i 1
1 (A) purely imaginary (B) zero
(C) (D) 2
2 (C) real (D) 10
 Chapter ■ Linear Algebra |
4 2.95
 x y z 
1 2 3 4 5
2x y 3z 2 3 4 5 6
11. If A =   , then |A| = .  
 x y z 18. I. If A  3 4 5 6 7 , then A−1 is symmetric.
   
 2 2 2
4 5 6 7 8
(A) 10xyz (B) 1 5 6 7 8 9
1 II. If a non-singular matrix A is symmetric, then A−1 is
(C) 0 (D) (x3 + y3 + z3 − 3xyz) also symmetric.
2
12. If the elements of a row or column of a given square Which of the following is correct?
matrix is multiplied by 2, then the value of (A) Both I and II true. (B) Both I and II false.
determinant is times the original determinant. (C) I is true, II is false. (D) I is false, II is true.
1
(A) 19. A is a third order matrix. If the value of the square of
(B) 1
2 the determinant of the matrix of co-factors of A is
28561,
(C) 2 (D) 4 then |A| equals
13. If A is a square matrix of order k and det(kA) = 27 (A) 25 (B) ±13
det(A), then k = . (C) 120 (D) ±169
(A) 9 (B) 1
20. If A is a square matrix of order 3, then the product of A
(C) 2 (D) 3
and its transpose is
14. If A and B are two square matrices of order 4 such that (A) unit matrix. (B) zero matrix.
|A| = −2 and |B| = 5, then |4AB| is (C) identity matrix. (D) symmetric matrix.
(A) −80 (B) −160 21. If A and B are two skew symmetric matrices of the
(C) −2560 (D) −256 same order then AB is skew symmetric if and only if
15. I. (a − b), (b − c), (c − a) are factors of the (A) AB + BA = O (B) AB − BA = O
determinant (C) AB + BA = I (D) AB − BA = I
1 1 1 1 2 3 
22. Rank of the matrix A4 5 6  is
a2 b2 c2 .
a b c  
II. If the elements of a determinant are functions of x (A) 1 (B) 2
and its two rows or columns become identical (i.e., (C) 3 (D) 4
determinant equals zero,) when we substitute x =  2 1 3
k,
then (x − k) is a factor of the  
23. The rank of the matrix 4 2 6 is
Which determinant.  
of the following is correct?  105 15 
(A) Both I and II true. (B) Both I and II false.  
(C) I is true, II is false (D) I is false, II is true (A) 0 (B) 1
16. A lower triangular matrix A = (aij)n × is singular if and (C) 2 (D) 3
 1  
n 24. If A = (1 2 3) and B = 2 then r(AB) is
only if
(A) aii = 0 for all i = 1, 2, … n
(B) a0 for atleast one i = 1, 2, … n  
ii 3
(C) a ≠ 0 for all i = 1, 2, … n  
(D) ≠ 0ii for atleast one i, i = 1, 2, … n (A) 0 (B) 1

 2 1 0  (C) 2 (D) 4

17. Inverse of the matrix 1 2 3 is 25. Which of the following matrix is row echelon form?
  1 0 1 2 
4 1  0 1 2 
 1 0 3 
0

(A)  (B) 1 0 
5 11 9  5 1 3  0 0 1 21 
   0 1 0 
(A) 1 2 2 11 2
(B) 6 
    0 0 0 0
 3
   1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
 (C) (D)

2.96 | Part ■ Engineering

II 6 5  
Mathematics  
9 2 5

 5 11 9  5 1 3
(C)    
1 2 2 (D) 11 2 6   
   
 3 6 5   9 2 5
  
 Chapter ■ Linear Algebra |
4 2.97
26. Which of the following set of vectors are linearly 35. The sum and product of the eigen values of the matrix
dependent? 2 0 1
(A) (2, 3, 3), (3, −1, 3), (4, −2, 5)  
0 4 2 is respectively

(B) (3, 4, −1), (−1, 3, 1), (−2, −7,
1 3 5
−2)
(C) (2, 1, 4), (1, −2, 2), (−3, 1, −6)
(D) (1, 3, −5), (−5, −1, 3), (4, −2, −2) (A) 0, 24 (B) 1, −24
27. The system of equations 2x − y + 3z = 9, x + y + z (C) 2, 20 (D) 4, −24
= 0 and x − y + z = 0 has/is
2 0 1 
(A) unique solution.  
36. The eigen values of a matrix A  0 p  are 1, 2,
(B) infinite solutions.
(C) only zero solution. 2  q
1 0 
(D) inconsistent. and 3. Then the values of p and q are .
28. The system of equations 6x + 7y + 8z = 1, 13x + 14y (A) p = 0, q = 0
+ (B) p = any real number, q = 2
(C) p = 2, q = 0
15z = 2 and x + 2y + 3z = 2 is
(A) consistent with unique solution. (D) p = 2, q = 2
 0 1 2 3
(B) consistent with infinite solutions.
(C) inconsistent.
 None of Engineering
| Part
2.98(D) ■
these  
II Mathematics 1 0 4 6
37. The eigen values of the matrix   is
29. The value of l for which the following system of 2 4 0 5
equa-
tion does not have a solution is  3 
6 5 0
x+y+z=6
4x + ly − lz = (A) real only (B) imaginary
0 3x + 2y − 4z =
−8 (C) zero only (D) imaginary or zero
(A) 3 (B) 38. The number of linearly independent eigen vectors of
−3
(C) 0 (D) 1  5 2
2 1 .
30. If the number of variables in the linear homogeneous  
system AX = O is n, then the system will have exactly one (A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) infinite
solution X = O, if the rank of the matrix A is
(A) 1 (B) < n 39. Which of the following is an eigen vector for the matrix
1 4 
(C) ≤ n (D) n  ?
31. If the equations 2x − y − z = 0, kx − 3y + 2z = 0 and  2 1 
−3x (A)  1 (B)  1
+ 2y + kz = 0 have a non-zero solution, then the value 3 1
of k is
(A) 2 (B) 1    
(C) 7 (D) Both 1 and 7  3 (D)  2 

+ asystem of equations a + 3y + 5z = 0, 2x − 4ay
32. The (C)  1
2
z = 0, −4x + 18y + 7z = 0 has only trivial solution if    
a is  6 6 2 2
   
(A) −1 or −3 (B) 1 or 40. For a matrix A = 6 5 4 , X = 2 is an eigen
−3
(C) not equal to 1, −3 (D) not equal to −1 and 3    
 2 1 0
 2 4 1  1
33. The eigen values of  0 
1  1  is vector. The corresponding eigen value is
(A) −2 (B) 1
.
0 0 3
  (C) 2 (D) 13
(A) 0, 0, 0 (B) 0, 1, 0 41. Let A be a 2 × 2 square matrix with l1 = −2 and l2
(C) 2, 1, 3 (D) −2, −1,
−3 =
34. The characteristic roots of the inverse of the matrix
−3
x as its eigen values and 4 6
   , x2    as its
1
4 7
 2 2 1     
1 3 1 are eigen vectors then A is given by
  0 2  4 6
1 2 2 (A)  (B) 
 
  4 5 7 9
   
(A)
(C) −1,
1, −1,
1 5 (B) 1, 1, 5
1, 1
(D) −1, −1, (C) 2 6  (D)  2 6
 3 4 3
5 7
5    
 Chapter ■ Linear Algebra |
4 2.99
2 5 4
   3 1 1
42. Consider the matrix A  0 1 0 let B = A−1, then 45. For the matrix A  1 3 1 , consider the fol-
   
B= 0 3 2  1
1 1
lowing statements
(A) 1 [A2 − A − 4I] (B)
1 (P) The characteristic equation of A is l3 − 5l2 + 4l =
[A2 − A − 4I]
4 4 0
1 2 1 2 (Q) A−1 exists
(C) [A + A − 4I] (D) [A − A +
4 4I] 4 (R) The matrix A is diagonalizable
2 3 Which of the above statements are TRUE?
(A) P, Q and R
(B) P and R but not Q
 2.100 | Part ■ Engineering
II If A  
43. Mathematics
 , then A =
15
(C) P and Q but not R
4 6
(A) 814A (B) 815A (D) Q and R but not P
(C) 816A (D) 15A 46. If P is a modal matrix and D is a spectral matrix of a
diagonalizable matrix A, then which of the following
2 0  0 
44. If A  3 6 7 , then the value of the matrix poly- relations is NOT TRUE among A, P and D?
  (A) PD = AP (B) DP−1 = P−1A
9 0 1
(C) A2P = PD2 (D) DP = PA
nomial 2A10 − 18A9 + 40A8 − 25A7 + 9A6 − 20A5 + 13A4 47. If A is a 3 × 3 square matrix with eigen values 0, 2, 3
– 9A3 + 20A2 − 10A is . with P as its modal matrix, then the eigen values of
the

(A) 2 0 0 4 0 0  matrix P−1 AP are .

3 6 7 (B) 6 12 14 (A) 0, 2, 3
    (B) 0, 4, 6
9 7 1 18 0 2 
(C) 0, 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 ,3
0 1 0 (D) 0 0 1
(C)
    (D) 1, ,
0 0 1 0 0 0 2 3

PREVIOUs YEARs’
QUEsTIOns
3  2i i 
1. For what value of a and b, the following simultaneous 
equations have an infinite number of solutions? 5. The inverse of the matrix  is
 i 3  2i 
x + y + z = 5; x + 3y + 3z = 9; x + zy + az = b
[GATE, 2007] [GATE, 2010]
(A) 2, 7 (B) 3, 8 i 
1 3 
(C) 8, 3 (D) 7, 2 (A) 2i 
3  2i 
2. The product of matrices (PQ)−1P is [GATE, 2008] 
12  i
−1 −1
(A) P (B) Q 1 3  2i i 
(C) P−1 Q−1P (D) PQP−1 (B)  
12  i 3  2i
3. The following simultaneous equations
x+y+z=3 1 3  i 
2i
x + 2y + 3z = 4 (C)  
14  i 3  2i 
x + 4y + kz = 6
will NOT have a unique solution for k equal to 1 3  2i i 
[GATE, 2008] (D)  
14  i 3  2i
(A) 0 (B) 5
(C) 6 (D) 7 6. [A] is a square matrix which is neither symmetric nor
4. A square matrix B is skew-symmetric if skew-symmetric and [A]T is its transpose. The sum
[GATE, 2009] and difference of these matrices are defined as [S] =
[A] + [A]T and [D] = [A] − [A]T, respectively. Which of
(A) BT = −B (B) BT = B
the following statements is TRUE? [GATE, 2011]
(C) B−1 = B (D) B−1 = BT
 Chapter ■ Linear Algebra |
4 2.101
(A) Both [S] and [D] are symmetric.
13. Let A = [aij], 1 ≤ i, j ≤ n with n ≥ 3 and aij = i ⋅ j.
(B) Both [S] and [D] are skew-symmetric. The rank of A is [GATE, 2015]
(C) [S] is skew-symmetric and [D] is symmetric. (A) 0 (B) 1
(D) [S] is symmetric and [D] is skew-symmetric. (C) n − 1 (D) n
7. The eigen vales of matrix 9 5 are [GATE, 2012] 14. For what value of p the following set of equations
5 8 will have no solution?
  2x + 3y = 5
(A) −2.42 and 6.86 (B) 3.48 and 13.53 3x + py = 10
(C) 4.70 and 6.86 (D) 6.86 and 9.50 [GATE, 2015]
8. What is the minimum number of multiplications 15. The smallest and largest eigen values of the following
involved in computing the matrix product PQR? Matrix 23 2
P has 4 rows and 2 columns, matrix Q has 2 rows  
matrix are: 4 6  [GATE, 2015]
and 4 columns, a matrix R has 4 rows and 1 column? 32 5

[GATE, 2013] (A) 1.5 and 2.5 (B) 0.5 and 2.5
Given 3 2 1 (C) 1.0 and 3.0 (D) 1.0 and 2.0
9. the matrices J  2 4 2 and K   12  2 1 
    16. The two eigen values of the matrix   have a
1 2 6 1 1 p
 
T
the product K JK is. [GATE, 2014] ratio of 3 : 1 for p = 2. What is another value of p for
0 1 2 3
1 0 3 0 which the eigen values have the same ratio of 3 : 1?
[GATE, 2015]
10. The determinant of matrix   is.
(A) −2 (B) 1
2 3 0 1 7 14
3 0 1 2
  (C) (D)
[GATE, 2014] 3 3
6 0 4 4  17. Consider the following linear systems:
  x + 2y − 3z = a
11. The rank of the matrix 2 14 8
18 is. 2x + 3y + 3z = b
 
1 14 0 10 5x + 9y − 6z = c
4 [GATE, 2014] This system is consistent if a, b and c satisfy the

12. The sum of Eigen values of the matrix [M] is. equation [GATE, 2016]
215 650 795 (A) 7a − b − c = 0 (B) 3a + b − c = 0
Where [M] = 655 150 835 [GATE, 2014] (C) 3a − b + c = 0 (D) 7a − b + c = 0
  18. If the entries in each column of a square matrix M add
485 355 550 up to 1, then an eigen value of M is [GATE, 2016]
(A) 915 (B) 1355 (A) 4 (B) 3
(C) 1640 (D) 2180 (C) 2 (D) 1

AnswER KEYs

Exercis
es
1. C 2. A 3. C 4. C 5. B 6. B 7. A 8. B 9. C 10. C
11. C 12. C 13. D 14. C 15. A 16. B 17. B 18. D 19. B 20. D
21. A 22. B 23. B 24. B 25. A 26. C 27. A 28. C 29. A 30. D
31. D 32. C 33. C 34. C 35. B 36. B 37. B 38. B 39. B 40. D
41. B 42. A 43. A 44. B 45. B 46. D 47. A

Previous Years’ 1. A 2. B 3. D
Questions 11. 2 12. A 13. B
2.102 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics
4. A 5. B 6. D
8. 16 9. 23 10. 88
14. 4.49 to 4.51 15. D
D 17. B
D