SOIL

- Soil is the upper layer of earth in which plants grow, a black or dark
brown material typically consisting of a mixture of organic remains, clay,
and rock particles.
- Soil is the thin upper layer of the earth's crust which has been
weathered from the parent material and decomposed animals
and plants. Soil support plants growth and animal life.
- Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids,
and organisms that together support life.
- Soil is the upper layer of earth that may be dug or plowed and in which
plants grow
- Soil is the top layer of the earth in which plants grow.

Pedology is the scientific study of soil, especially its formation, nature,

classification and uses.

Pedologist is a person who studies origins, composition and distribution of

soils and the materials from which soils are formed.

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 Soil

SOIL FORMATION

Soil formation is sometimes called Pedogenesis. The formation of soil is mainly initiated
by weathering process. But this type of soil and rate of soil formation depend on a
number of interacting factors in a particular environment.

Factors Influencing Soil Formation

Soils are a product of their own environment, as their formation tends to vary from place
to place depending on various obtaining factors. There are several factors which
influence soil formation these are as follows

1. Parent Rock Material

This is one of the Achief factors of soil formation. It determines soil type, color, depth,
rate of soil formation, structure, texture, porosity and soil fertility. Parent rock influence
soil maturity, therefore hard rocks take a long time to mature while soft rocks take a
short time to mature. Shallow and poorly productive
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2. Climate
The most variable elements under climate are temperature, precipitation (rainfall) and
wind. Temperature affects decomposition of organic matter hence it influences the
development of soil profile Rainfall and wind encourage the formation of soil due to their
role in the erosion process On the other hand rainfall adds moisture which encourages
chemical and physical weathering

3. Living Organism
Some plants have nodules with bacteria which add nitrogen into the soil hence improve
aeration of soil. Microorganisms are active in the decomposition of the organic matter to
form humus on the other hand barrowing of animals and plant roots facilitate the state of
both physical and chemical weathering hence lead to the formation of soil easily.

4. Relief [Topography]
The role of relief in soil formation is mostly in indirect way. Relief influences climate and
vegetation. The most important aspect of topography in soil formation, steep slopes
areas soils are shallow due to erosion while on a gentle slopes and low land areas soils
are deep due to deposition of materials.

5. Time
This involves the duration that has been taken in the process of soil formation. Time
determines the maturity of soil, when soil formation has taken a long time, soil tends to
be mature i.e. they are deep and well developed.

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Importance of Soil

Soil is virtual life support to both flora and fauna organism,because all the organisms
depend on the soil as their source of food. Soil is therefore important to both plants and
animals life in various ways including the following:

1. Animal life support

Soil acts as plant habitat in which animals uses plants as food for their survival.

2. Building materials
Soil is used directly in making of bricks, tiles and white wash, The materials are the
used in building of houses ,bridges and other structures.

3. Source of minerals
Some soils contains minerals which can be extracted for commercial purposes. For
example: Titanum is obtained from soil deposit of Kwale near Mombasa in Kenya,
Bauxite which is mined in Guinea in West Africa

4. Cultural and medicinal values

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Some soils are cultural value in some communities e.g red ochre and clay are used for
body decorations by Maasai communities and clay mixed with herbals and being used
for medicines

5. Farming and settlement

Fertile soil influence cultivation of crops .settlement distribution also depends on arable
fertile soil where as people tend to dwell in areas with food availability.

6. Habitat for organisms

Soil functions as a habitat for organisms such as burrowing rodent, earthworms and
termite. These organisms perhaps are significant in the process of soil formation

Farming

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THE COMPONENTS OF THE SOIL

Soil is made up of the following components; organic matter (humus), inorganic matter
(minerals), soil water and soil air.

1. ORGANIC MATTER

This forms 5% of the total volume of soil and is made up of plant and animal remains
(humus). This forms humus as a result of decomposition of animals and plant remains.

Importance of Humus

1. Improving the structure of the soil and its water retaining capacity limits the leaching
process and improves the soil aeration

2. Storing and supplying nutrients to the plant like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
calcium and lead to high production.

3. Humus regulates the temperature of the soil and soil pH

4. The living micro-organisms help in decomposition.

2. INORGANIC MATTER

This forms 45% of the total volume and is made up of minerals from the parent rock.
Minerals constitute several nutrients which are needed by plants.Minerals include
silicon, iron, calcium, magnesium, copper, lead, nitrogen, phosphorous, sulpher,
manganese, zinc, potassium and vanadium.

3. SOIL WATER

Forms 25% of the total volume and it is one of the most important soil components. It
is derived essentially from rainfall especially from infiltration and through flow.

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Importance of Water
1. It regulates temperature in the soil
2. It helps in the solution and transfer of nutrients in the soil
3. Too much water in the soil leads to the leaching of mineral nutrients in the soil
4. It controls chemical processes like weathering as well as mechanical weathering.

4. SOIL AIR

It forms 25% of the total volume. It consists of the soil atmosphere from which plants
and soil organisms obtain oxygen for their metabolism and dispose of carbon dioxide
and other gases.

The Components of Soil

SOIL PROPERTIES

Soil has both physical and chemical properties whereby the physical properties include
soil profile, soil depth, soil colour, soil texture, porosity and structure while chemical
properties include soil Ph and cation exchange

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A) PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

This include soil profile, soil depth, soil colour, soil texture, porosity and structure.

1. SOIL PROFILE

This is the vertical section from the surface to the parent rock characterized by distinct
layers usually of different texture and colors. The ideal soil profile has three horizons
that include A, B and C horizons.

A - Horizon
Is the top most layer and can include organic matter to form humus. Horizon ‘A’ varies
in color from place to place for example dark, grey etc. this zone is also called the zone
of Elluviation from which materials are washed down ward. It is in this place where
leaching process takes place. LEACHING Is the washing down of nutrients in solution
from the topmost layer to another layer

B - Horizon
This zone is also known as the zone of accumulation/illuviation. In this layer the
materials washed from ‘A’ horizon are deposited or accumulated.

C - Horizon
Is the partially weathered parent rock from which the soil develops.

D - Horizon
This is the fresh [unweathered] parent rock. D - horizon (Bedrock) It is the un weathered
parent rock. it is the parent in sense that it is the source of the in organic content of the
soil

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 Soil Profile

2. SOIL DEPTH

Soil depth varies from place to place depending on maturity. Maturity is influenced by
the nature of the rock as well as duration of the soil forming processes which have been
operating. Soil depth is important for agricultural activities. Thus deep soil is important
for agricultural activities while shallow soil is not good for cultivation.

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3. SOIL COLOUR

Soil color is determined by the materials and the mineralogical composition from which
the soil is derived and organic matter content. It varies from one place to another. Soil
color can be classified and described in terms of:
a) Dark [black, grey, dark brown etc] and cinnamon
b) Bright [yellow, orange, red, reddish brown and yellow brown]
c) Light [white, whitish grey]

4. SOIL TEXTURE

This refers to the degree of coarseness of soil (especially soil mineral particles). It can
also be referred to as variations in the particle size, caliber or mechanical composition.
According to the soil texture, soil can be classified as;
a) Course sand (2 to 0.2mm)
b) Fine sand
c) Silt (0.02mm)
d) Clay (less than 0.002mm) e) Loam soil is a mixture of sand, clay and silt.
NB; measuring of soil texture can be done through the use of finger testing

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Importance of Soil Texture
1. It influences soil porosity, permeability, structure and retention capacity
2. It influences plant growth and root penetration
3. It influences the cultivation during agricultural activities
4. It influences soil resistance against erosion
5. It influences soil fertility

5. SOIL POROSITY

These are the total volume of the pores or empty spaces between particles of the soil
materials especially in the soil. Soil porosity is mainly influenced by soil texture, organic
matter, soil structure, individual undisturbed soil aggregate compounds referred to as
peds.

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6. SOIL STRUCTURE
This refers to the arrangement of soil particles into aggregate compound particles. The
aggregation of soil particles produces the peds of different shapes and sizes. When
aggregation is absent, as in loose sand, soil is described as structure less. Soil structure
can be described as weak, moderate or strong.

Importance of Soil Structure

1. It determines water retention capacity and aeration

2. It is an indicator of soil fertility or suitability for agricultural activities, settlement

locations and construction

3. Good structure facilitates the activities of the micro organism

4. It influences the cultivation process

5. It influences the plant growth by influencing the root penetration and water retention

Therefore it is quite fundamental to note that the best soil is that which influences the
water holding and aeration capacities of the soil compounds particles. Individual
undistributed soil aggregate referred to as peds.

7. SOIL TEMPERATURE

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Soil has a certain degree of temperature and this tends to vary from one place to
another due to the variation in the climatic condition. In polar latitudes the soils are cold
because of small amount of insolation received there. In tropical areas soils are warm
due to high intensity of insolation reaching the surface.

Importance of Soil Temperature

1. It controls biochemical and chemical processes especially the decomposition of

organic matter and plant growth. Thus plant growth and decomposition tend to be fast in
warm areas and slow in cold areas, this is due to the fact that growth cells and micro
organisms tend to be very active in the warm areas unlike in the cold areas where they
tend to be inactive or less active.

2. It also determines the existence of micro organisms in certain areas. In extremely hot
areas and cold areas may not support the survival of animals and other micro
organisms

3. It controls the amount of moisture in the soil where there is high evaporation soil
moisture is less or the soils are dry

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B) CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

These include soil properties like soil reaction (PH), cation exchange and leaching.

1. SOIL REACTION (SOIL PH)

This is the term used to describe the degree of acidity and alkalinity in the soil and it is
related mainly to climate. This degree of acidity and alkalinity is expressed in the PH
value which is the measure in terms of hydrogen ions concentration held by the soil
colloid. Soil PH scale range from 1 to 14 where ph 7 is neutral, the condition below 7 is
acidic while the condition above 7 is alkalinity which means it has more alkalis.

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Importance of Soil pH
1. It helps in determining the selection of crops and agricultural distribution
2. It affects plant growth such that where there is too much acidity there will be poor
plant growth. This is because the increase of acidity leads to the increase in leaching
with affects soil structure

2. LEACHING

This is the process in which the nutrients are washed down in solution from the topsoil
layer. The pH in leached soils is quite low, that is high acidity. Leaching is very effective
in wet conditions like equatorial areas and less effective in dry areas where bases
accumulate in the topsoil by the process of calcification characterized by the capillary
action.

3. CATION EXCHANGE

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Cation exchange refers to the process in which the cations of Calcium (Ca), Magnesium
(Mg), Potassium (K) and Sodium (Na) replace Hydrogen Ions (other weaker cations) in
the soil. It takes place between soil particles and solution as well as soil particles and
plant roots.

Simple processes for soil formation.

1. Weathering:-

It involves the gradual weakening; and disintegration and

decomposition of rocks into simpler particles under the influence of
different weather forces of like rainfall and temperature changes.
Weathering makes the exposed surface rocks broken into simpler
materials of regolith then into simpler materials of mineral substrates.
Weathering is what prepares the materials for other processes to take
place to make a proper soil, and it is considered being the most
fundamental process in soil formation.

Weathering is extremely varied as it causes rocks breakage in different

ways. It is thus; categorized into the following forms.

a) Mechanical weathering
The exposed surface rocks are gradually disintegrated into simpler
substances without being altered or decomposed by chemical reaction. I.e. a
rock is disintegrated into successively fragments by mechanical means
without any change in chemical composition. It takes place through the
processes of exfoliation, frost action, salt crystallization and slacking.

b) Chemical weathering:-

It is the decomposition of the exposed surface rocks by chemical

reactions, which involve the combination of water, certain atmospheric
gases, and certain atmospheric gases of like oxygen and carbon dioxide,
penetrates the rocks and make them decomposed and gradually break
apart. This takes place through the processes of carbonation, hydrolysis,
oxidation, hydration and solution.

c) Biological weathering:-

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By biological weathering, the exposed surface rocks are gradually
disintegrated in simpler fragments by the organic activities like wedging
action of the roots of big trees.

2. Leaching:-

It is the removal of materials in solution or suspension downwards as

water move vertically through the soil body by the force of gravity. It
results into the movement of soluble and suspended materials in water
percolating.

Leaching has two folds of eluviations and illuviation. Elluviation is a

washing out of materials in solution or suspension from the overlying
parts of the soil body. While illuviation, is the accumulation of the
materials taken from the overlying parts of the soil body. Eluviations is of
two categories and include; chemical eluviations and physical eluviations.
Chemical eluviations occurs if materials removed from the overlying parts
in solution after to have been dissolved in water; while physical
eluviations takes place when materials removed in suspension.

Leaching is considered being a process in soil formation as it may causes

a soil body developed with some horizons particularly the A and B by
eluviations and illuviation respectively.

3. Humification:-

It is process by which the remains of died organisms of both plants and

animals accumulate, decompose and mix with soil to form humus in a soil
body. The process is greatly done by the soil living organisms. It is one of
the important processes in soil formation as it makes a soil to have
humus, which is one on the soil components. The process occurs rapidly
in tropical humid areas. It takes place gradually in cool regions.

4. Organic sorting.

It is a process of re organizing the mineral particles and organic matters

to form soil aggregates. This process improves soil structure.

5. Mineralization.

It is a process by which the dead plants and animals are broken down and
mineral-nutrients which were present in their body tissues are released
into the soil body and then taken by other plants.

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 6. Cheluviation:-

It is a process in which the minerals are dissolved and transported down

wards under the influence of chelating agents. Chelating agents are the
organic acids produced after the decomposition of organic matter.

7. Capillary action:

It is an upward movement of water to a surface and may cause some

materials deposited to form a layer materials depending on the nature of bed
rocks from which the solution has been derived.

SIMPLE SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Soil classification refers to the grouping of soil according to specific characteristics, such
as properties or factors like climate also soil can be classified according to the age,
texture and color. One common classification is that based on texture. According to
the soil texture triangle, there are three main texture namely sand, silt and clay.
This is based on the size of their particles as discussed earlier. There percentage
content of each one of these determines the type of soil according to texture. Note that
sandy soil have sand content of over 45% clay soil have above 27% while silt soil have
silt content of above 40%.

SOIL TEXTURE TRIANGLE

1. Sand: This soil consists mainly of course and fine sand and contain very little among
of clay such that it not sticky when wet and is lose when dry, percentage of sand is
above 85, that of clay is up to 10 and silt is up to 10. When such soil is rubber, it does
not leave any film on the figures.

2. Loamy Sand: This consists most of sand but with sufficient clay such that it gives it
a slight plastic quality when it is very moist. When it is rubbed between figures it leaves
a slight film of fine material, sand particles account for 70% to 90% clay up to 15% and
silt up to 30%.

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3. Sandy Loam: This soil has high percentage of sand between 43% and 85% with
clay content of up to 20% and silt up to 50%. It moulds easily when it is sufficiently moist
but does not stick easily to the figures.

4. Loam: In this soil, sand and silt dominate an average of 40% each while clay
account for about 20% on average. It moulds easily when it has sufficient moisture and
does stick to the figures to some extent.

5. Silt Loam: It has a high percentage of silt of between 50% and 87% sand between
13% and 50% and clay up to 27%. It is moderately plastic and not very sticky it has a
smooth soapy feeling due to high content of silt.

6. Sand Clay Loam: This has over 45% sand, up to 28% silt and clay between 20%
and 35%. It can be a bit sticky because of the clay content but quit porous because of
the sand.

7. Clay Loam: Sand content between 20% and 54% silt between 15% and 53% clay
between 27% and 40%. This one has sticky distinction when moist because of clay.

8. Silt Clay Loam: The amount of sand is between 27% and 60%, silt between 40%
and 78% and clay between 27% and 40%. The high silt content makes it smooth and
has a soapy feeling. It is less sticky than clay loam or silt clay.

9. Silt: This have over 80% silt particles, up to 20% sand and less than 12% clay. It is
predominantly smooth and has a typical soapy feeling of silt.

10. Sandy Clay: Sand between 45% and 65% silt up to 20% and clay between 35%
and 55%. In the presence of sufficient moisture this soil is plastic and sticky clay and
sand is dominated.

11. Clay: The proportion of sand goes up to 45%, while that of silt is up to clay account
for above 40%. The soil is sticky when moist has a plastic feel. It can be rolled into
threads when moist and can be molded into different shapes. And can retain fingerprint.

12. Silt Clay: Sand up to 20% silt between 40% and 60% and clay between 40% and
60%. This soil is composed of almost fine particles throughout. It is smooth and has to
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some extent the soapy feel of silt but has a degree of stickiness because of the high
proportion of clay.

Clay Soil

Sandy Soil

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 Loamy Soil

SOIL EROSION

Soil erosion is the wearing away, detachment and removal of soil material from one
place to another place through the agents like water, wind, ice etc

Agents of Soil Erosion

1. Water. This is the most important agent of soil erosion Erosion by water involves:

a) Splash erosion caused by rain drops

b) Sheet erosion which involves the removal of the maximum cover of soil by surface
water

c) Rill erosion which leads to the formation of small channels called sills on the surface

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d) Gully erosion that leads to the formation of deep troughs called gullies due to severe
under cutting River erosion that takes place in the specific channels called river valleys

2. Wind. This is another agent of soil erosion. It takes place in arid and semi-arid areas
or where the soil is loose

3. Ice. It is also another agent of soil erosion. It takes place in cold areas where there is
the formation of ice

4. Gravity. This leads to the gradual movement of weathered material down the slope
without involving transporting agents.

Soil Erosion

Types of Soil Erosion

1. Normal geological erosion. It is the wide spread type of erosion that occurs wherever
there is a natural flow of energy and matter on the earth’s surface without man’s
influence. It is normally very slow and so infectious to the soil cover of the world.

2. Accelerated soil erosion. Is the type of erosion associated with man’s activities [man
included] it is spectacular in nature therefore it has attracted man’s attention.

Factors Affecting / Accelerating Soil Erosion

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a) Natural Factors

1. Climate. Where there is heavy rainfall erosion tends to be severe while where there is
low rainfall erosion is low

2. Topography. On steep slopes soil erosion can be fast while on gentle slopes the rate
of erosion tends to be low

3. Nature of soil. This depends on the characteristics or features like texture, structure,
permeability e.tc. Unstable soils with coarse textures are prone to severe erosion than
fine textured stable soils

4. Vegetation cover Where there is dense vegetation soil erosion is less or low rate
unlike where there is scanty or no vegetation cover.

b) Human Factors

5. Good management of the soil Which involves the way human beings use soil wisely
and skillfully and undertaking conservation measures to reduce or mitigate erosion
through afforestation.

6. Poor management. That involves unwise use of soil through over cultivation, over
grazing and deforestation.

7. The increase in population. This leads to the over exploitation of resources especially
minerals, forests and over cultivation.

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Effects of Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is a serious challenge which has many effects on social and economic
activities. Some of these effects are explained below:

1. Loss of productive soil. When the to productive soil is eroded it is lost forever only the
unproductive stony soil is left behind the consequently is the lowering of agriculture
productivity of land.

2. Depict of vegetation cover. The eroded land cannot hold the plants including crops
are washed away or are buried in the deposit soil way from their original location.

3. Destruction of structures. when erosion takes place bridges can being taken away
from their original areas . other structures like road ,railways, as well as buildings can
collapse after erosion of soils.

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4. Pollution to environment. Eroded soil that is carried into rivers lake s and oceans may
contain chemical pollutants collected by water from farm and dumping grounds, hence
resulting to loss of aquatic organisms.

5. Provides sand for building and construction activities. sand which is eroded from
steep slope is deposited on river bed from where it is scoped when the water flows in
the river has diminished or even stopped. The sand is then used for construction
purpose this is common in Mpiji river at Bunju Dar es salaam and most parts of
Kisarawe II in coastal region.

Population Growth and the Rate of Soil Erosion on Quality of Life

As discussed above we can see that soil erosion can affect the quality of life of the
people positively and negatively.

1.When the region is severely affected by the soil erosion, where crop production is
impeded, when useful soils are carried away, the region experiences shortage of food.
This causes famine and malnutrition. With inadequate nutrition child mortality rate goes
up and population growth is impeded.

2. When the foundation of existing buildings and roads are eroded. Accessibility to
areas is made difficult. Such areas are isolated in terms of social services such as
hospitals and education. The general health and welfare of the people become poor
leading to increase in mortality and lowering of population.

3. When life becomes unbearable in the rural areas because of severe soil erosion,
able-bodied persons especially men migrate to urban areas to other better areas in
search of employment.This reduce population in the affected areas as well as the
required man power to develop the areas.

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 Effect of Soil Erosion

TECHNIQUES FOR SOIL CONSERVATION

When using the land it must at the same time be properly maintained by apply proper
farming techniques to reduce erosion and then to improve it productive capacity.
Therefore a number of ways of doing this for example:

1. Crop Rotations
This practice offers protection to the land from soil erosion and good chance to cover its
original fertility crop rotation makes it possible to have the land occupied with crops
most of the year. In addition the loss of crop most of the year. In addition the loss of
nutrient elements by leaching is minimized and losses from erosion are greatly reduced
Erosion hazard are n important factor in determining the kind and sequence of crops to
be grown in a rotation of a particular piece of land in area where erosion can easily

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occur due to either slope or soil characteristic, permanent crops such as trees or
pasture should be planted rotation will not provide erosion protection on steep slopes.

Crop Rotation

2. Contour Farming
Contour farming is ploughing, planting and cultivating across the slope
following the contours, generally on gently sloping land each contour row
can be viewed as a small dam that checks the speed of non-off water and
reduce erosion on well drained soil. Contour farming is simple and easier of
all the supplemental soil conservation

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 Contour Farming

3. Strip Cropping
This is a system in which crops are grown in strips that are arranged across the general
slope or at right angle to the path of the prevailing wind. The strip do not necessary
have to follow contours.

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4. Terracing
A terraced is an embankment of earth or stone or other suitable materials or
combination of these materials made across the slope for the purpose of controlling run-
off. Terrace decrease the length of the slope thus reducing erosion and run-off . There
are Two Types of Terraces namely:

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a) Level Terrace: Is a ridge built generally on sandy soil with little or no grade it is
designed to hold water in the field until absorbed it adopted in areas where rainfall and
soil characteristics are such that there is only slight danger of water accumulating on the
soil and breaking the soil surface.

b) Channel Terraces: Consist that are cut across the slope these channel carry the
excess rain water from the fields but at a low speed thus minimizing erosion .they are
commonly constructed in regions that receive heavy rainfall.

Terracing

5. Planting of Trees and Grasses

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Trees and grasses can act as wind breakers and can also control water erosion. In
controlling erosion caused by wind trees or grasses may be planted in strips so that soil
particles carried by wind may be deposited on or near the grass strip.

Trees and Grasses

6. Controlled Grazing

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Overgrazing can be dangerous as most or all the vegetation can be removed with
resultant exposure of the land to erosion rotational grazing with the optimum number of
animals in one area can help to maintain the vegetation cover.

Controlled Grazing

7. Mulching
Mulching act as a huge sponge which absorbs the water that fall on it and releases it
slowly and harmlessly to the underlying soil if there is no protective cover over a wide
area erosion may occur rapidly.

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Mulching

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