What is “literature”?

 Literature is the art of expressing human emotions, thoughts, imagination, and experiences in an
aesthetic way through written or spoken works.

 It reflects the culture, history, and values of societies while creating emotional and intellectual
connections among individuals.

 The etymology of the word "literature" traces back to Latin.

 The word literature is derived from the Latin word litera, which means "letter" or "writing." This
evolved into litteratura, meaning "the art of writing."

Key characteristics of literature:

 Artistic Purpose: Literature aims to use language in an artistic and aesthetic manner.

 Freedom of Expression: It allows individuals to freely express their emotions and thoughts.

 Cultural Reflection: Literature reflects the culture and history of the time it was written, offering
insights into different societies, ideas, and values.

 Language and Style: Writers use a variety of techniques (metaphor, symbolism, irony…) to
convey their ideas in engaging and meaningful ways.

Why studying literature?:

 To gain insights into human nature and society.

 To analyze themes, characters, and cultural contexts.

 To engage critically with texts and develop your ability to interpret and express complex ideas.

Two Main Genres of Literature: Non-fiction (Fact) & Fiction:

 Non-fiction refers to writing that presents facts, events, and real-life experiences. It can be
biographical, historical, journalistic, or argumentative.

 Examples:

o Essays: Scholarly writing that explores real-world ideas, concepts, and theories.

o Biographies: Written accounts of real people’s lives.

o History: Works detailing past events based on factual evidence and research.

 Fiction refers to narrative works that come from the imagination of the author. These stories,
while they may reflect real-world themes or events, are created for the sake of storytelling.

 Examples:

o Novels: Long-form fictional works, such as Pride and Prejudice or 1984.

o Short Stories: Brief fictional works focusing on a specific moment or idea.

Three Other Literary Genres:

 Literature is categorized into three main genres based on form and content:

 poetry

 Prose

 Drama

«Poetry»

• A genre characterized by rhythm, meter, and the expressive use of language to convey emotions
and imagination.

• Often uses rhyme, imagery, and symbolic language.

• The etymology of the word "poetry" traces back to Latin and Greek.

• The word poetry comes from the Latin poetica, which means "poetical." This, in turn, originates
from the Greek word ποιητική (poietikē).

• The Greek word ποιητικός (poietikos) is derived from the verb ποιεῖν (poiein), meaning "to make"
or "to create."

• Therefore, the root meaning is linked to the idea of creation or transformation, as poetry involves
the act of creating or shaping with words.

• In essence, "poetry" fundamentally means "creation" or "the act of making", reflecting the process
of a poet creating something with words.

I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud

By William Wordsworth

«I wandered lonely as a cloud

That floats on high o'er vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host, of golden daffodils;
Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.»

 This poem describes the beauty of nature and its profound impact on the human soul. The
depiction of daffodils, in particular, reflects Wordsworth’s love for nature and embodies the spirit
of the Romantic era.

«Prose»

• Written in ordinary language, prose is closer to everyday speech.

 • Includes novels, short stories, essays, and other forms of narrative writing.

• Example: Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice.”

• The etymology of the word "prose" traces back to Latin.

• The word prose comes from the Latin prosa, which means "straightforward, direct writing."

• Prosa itself is derived from processus, meaning "progress"

• In short, prose refers to ordinary written or spoken language, and its etymology reflects the idea of
a structured, forward-moving expression.

Example:

By Jane Austen

«Pride and Prejudice»

«It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in
want of a wife. However little known the feelings or views of such a man may be on his first entering
a neighbourhood, this truth is so well fixed in the minds of the surrounding families, that he is
considered the rightful property of some one or other of their daughters.»

• The opening line of Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice is widely recognized as one of the most
iconic in English literature:
"It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must
be in want of a wife."

• This line immediately establishes the novel’s satirical tone, illustrating the social attitudes of the
early 19th century, particularly concerning marriage and wealth. Austen uses irony and societal
commentary to expose the norms and expectations of the time. The phrase "universally
acknowledged" is key to this irony; it implies that this supposed truth is so deeply ingrained in
society that it goes unquestioned. However, the exaggerated nature of this statement suggests a
critique of how society reduces individuals to mere commodities or marital prospects, especially
when wealth is involved.

«Drama»

• Written for performance on stage, drama relies on dialogue and actions to tell a story.

• Subgenres include tragedy, comedy, and tragicomedy.

• Example: William Shakespeare’s “Hamlet.”

• The word "drama" comes from the ancient Greek term "δρᾶμα" (drama), which is derived from
the verb "dran" (δράν), meaning "to do," "to act," or "to perform." The term originally referred to
something done or an action, specifically in the context of a theatrical performance.

To Sum up

 Literature is an art form that aesthetically expresses human experiences.

  Fact and Fiction / Poetry, prose, and drama are the main genres of literature.

 Literary terms are essential for understanding and analyzing literary works, providing a deeper
comprehension of their structure and meaning.

Figurative Language and Figures of Speech: An Introduction

1. Metaphor

• A metaphor is a direct comparison between two unrelated things, where one is used in place of
the other, creating depth of meaning.

• A metaphor intensifies the meaning and makes the message more impactful.

• It does not use words like "like" or "as."

• "Time is a thief."
(Here, "time" is directly compared to a thief, suggesting that time steals moments from us.)

William Shakespeare’s As You Like It (Act 2, Scene 7):

“All the world’s a stage,

And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances;
And one man in his time plays many parts…”

 In this famous metaphor, Shakespeare compares the world to a stage and people to actors,
suggesting that life is like a performance where individuals play different roles at various points in
their lives. The metaphor emphasizes the transient nature of human existence and the different
roles that individuals assume over time.

This metaphor is one of the most iconic in English literature, summarizing the idea that life is a series of
acts and roles, with individuals transitioning through different phases in their existence.

2. Simile

• A simile is a comparison between two different things using "like" or "as.

• Similes provide a more visual and vivid impression to the reader.

• "Her smile was as bright as the sun."

(This compares the brightness of her smile to the sun.)

Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre (Chapter 23)

"I felt as if I were at once in heaven and on earth—pleasure and pain, a mingling of emotions that was
at once too sweet and too bitter."

 In this example, “as if” introduces the comparison, likening Jane’s emotional state to an
overwhelming feeling that mixes both pleasure and pain, like being caught between two
extremes. This simile helps convey the complexity of her emotions in that moment.
  The simile compares Jane's feelings to an intense mix of sweet and bitter emotions, expressing
how conflicted and overwhelmed she feels by her love and her circumstances.

3. Symbol

• A symbol is something concrete that represents an abstract idea or concept.

• A symbol carries deeper meanings and is often used to convey universal themes in literature.

• "The dove is a symbol of peace."

(The dove represents peace.)

William Blake’s poem The Tyger (1794):

"Tyger Tyger, burning bright,

In the forests of the night:
What immortal hand or eye,
Could frame thy fearful symmetry?"

 In this poem, the tiger is a symbol. While the poem specifically describes a tiger, the tiger in
Blake’s work is often interpreted as a symbol for the power and mystery of creation, the duality
of good and evil, and the awe-inspiring yet fearsome forces of nature.

 The tiger here can be seen as a symbol of something both beautiful and terrifying, representing
the complexity and contradictions of life and creation. Blake's use of the tiger as a symbol invites
readers to ponder the nature of existence and the divine creator's role in shaping both the
gentle and the dangerous aspects of the world.

 In literature, symbols often represent deeper meanings, conveying abstract ideas or themes
through concrete images or objects. The tiger in The Tyger stands for the paradoxes of existence,
as well as the divine mystery.

4. Conceit

• A conceit is an extended metaphor, often elaborate, where two vastly different things are
compared in a complex way.

• A conceit is a far-fetched metaphor in which a very unlikely connection between two things is
established.

• A conceit is more intricate and imaginative than a metaphor, often leading to profound
interpretations.

• These figurative expressions are often meant to surprise and challenge the reader by creating
unusual comparisons or metaphors.
In John Donne's "A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning," the separation of lovers is compared to a
compass.
(Conceits are often found in poetry and can lead to deeper reflection.)

«If they be two, they are two so

As stiff twin compasses are two;

Thy soul, the fixed foot, makes no show

To move, but doth, if the other do.»

 These lines are from John Donne's poem A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning.

 Donne is saying that if one leg (soul) moves , the other inevitably moves as well.

 The poem is about the speaker’s departure from his lover, urging her not to mourn because their
love is strong enough to endure the physical separation. The lines compare the two lovers to
twin compasses, suggesting that even though they may be physically apart, they are still
connected. One foot of the compass (representing the soul of the lover) is fixed, while the other
moves, yet the whole compass remains in unity. Similarly, despite the distance, their souls
remain interconnected, and their love doesn’t diminish.

5. Irony

• Irony involves expressing something in a way that conveys the opposite of its literal meaning.
There are three types of irony: verbal irony, situational irony, and dramatic irony.

• Irony creates an impact by conveying unexpected or contrasting meanings, often with humorous
or dramatic effects.

• When a fire station burns down, people might say, "I guess that's just great!"
(This is ironic because a fire station should prevent fires, but instead, it burns.)

Jonathan Swift’s A Modest Proposal (1729):

"I have been assured by a principal gentleman of my acquaintance in the city of Dublin, that a young
healthy child well nursed is, at a year old, a most delicious, nourishing and wholesome food, whether
stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee, or a
ragout."

 In this satirical essay, Swift uses verbal irony, where the surface meaning of his words contrasts
sharply with their true meaning.

 Swift is "suggesting" that poor Irish families sell their children as food to the rich, which, on the
surface, seems like a rational solution to poverty. However, the true purpose of his work is to
criticize the British exploitation of the Irish and to highlight the poverty in Ireland.
  The irony lies in the fact that Swift is not seriously advocating cannibalism but using absurdity to
expose the social and economic injustices of his time. The extreme proposal makes the reader
uncomfortable and forces them to think critically about the issues Swift is addressing.

 In this case, Swift's use of irony is powerful because it forces readers to confront the moral and
ethical dilemmas surrounding colonialism, poverty, and exploitation.

6. Paradox

• A paradox is a statement that seems contradictory or self-refuting but upon deeper reflection,
may hold truth.

• A paradox encourages the reader to think more deeply, as it challenges conventional wisdom.

• "Less is more."
(This phrase suggests that simplicity can be more powerful than excess.)

George Orwell’s 1984 (1949):

"War is peace. Freedom is slavery. Ignorance is strength."

 In 1984, Orwell uses a paradoxical slogan by the Party to illustrate the contradiction at the heart
of totalitarian control. On the surface, these statements seem completely illogical — how can
war be peace, freedom be slavery, and ignorance be strength? However, they reflect the
manipulation of truth and language by the Party, showing how contradictory ideas are used to
control and confuse the population. Each paradoxical statement represents a form of control
and brainwashing, where the public is forced to accept the opposite of what they know to be
true.

 This paradox serves to highlight the contradictory nature of the dystopian society Orwell depicts,
where reality is constantly manipulated, and people are forced to accept false truths.

7. Oxymoron

• An oxymoron is a figure of speech that combines two contradictory terms.

• Oxymorons emphasize contradiction and create a striking effect through juxtaposition.

• "Deafening silence."
(This juxtaposes the idea of silence with the intensity of "deafening," creating a striking contrast.)

William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet (1597):

"O brawling love! O loving hate!"

(Act 1, Scene 1)

 In this famous line from Romeo and Juliet, Romeo expresses his conflicted feelings about love.
He describes love as both "brawling" (suggesting conflict and violence) and "loving" (suggesting
 affection and warmth). These terms, when paired together, create an oxymoron, a figure of
speech that combines contradictory or opposing ideas. This oxymoron highlights the intense
emotional contradictions Romeo feels as he struggles with his romantic feelings, which can bring
both joy and pain.

 The use of oxymorons in literature often emphasizes complex emotions or situations, where
things that seem mutually exclusive are combined to capture the paradoxes of human
experience.

8. Hyperbole

• Hyperbole is an exaggerated way of describing something, often for emphasis.

• Hyperbole makes things sound more intense or dramatic, often for effect or humor.

• "I've told you a million times."

(This exaggeration emphasizes the speaker's frustration.)

William Shakespeare’s The Comedy of Errors (1594):

"The one to me, and the other that I’ll bear;

This is the chain, and this the letter,
I’ll bear them straight to your ladyship."
(Act 2, Scene 1)

 In this quote, Shakespeare uses hyperbole to exaggerate the emotional intensity and importance
of the objects being referenced. The use of hyperbole in literature is meant to create an
overwhelming or exaggerated sense of importance or effect, often for comedic or dramatic
emphasis.

9. Understatement

• An understatement is the opposite of hyperbole; it involves downplaying something for effect.

• Understatement is often used ironically or humorously, and can subtly emphasize the
importance of a situation.

• "It's just a scratch" (when there is a large wound).

(The speaker is minimizing the severity of the injury.)

Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice (1813):

"I am not a great reader, and I have not much pleasure in reading."
(Chapter 8)

 This line is spoken by Charlotte Lucas, and it’s an example of understatement because she
downplays her own intelligence and ability to appreciate reading. In reality, Charlotte is quite
perceptive and intelligent, but she modestly and humorously downplays her love for reading in
this line. Austen uses this form of expression to subtly reveal Charlotte's character — she's
pragmatic and somewhat self-deprecating. By downplaying something that would typically be
 seen as a positive trait, the use of understatement adds depth to her character while also
conveying the social norms and expectations of the time.

 Understatement is a literary device where something is intentionally presented as smaller, less

important, or less significant than it actually is. It’s often used for ironic or humorous effect.

10. Pun

• A pun is a play on words, where a word with multiple meanings or similar-sounding words are
used for a humorous effect.

• Puns create humor by exploiting multiple meanings of a word, often adding a playful or witty
twist to the language.

• "Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana."

(This is a pun that uses the word "flies" in two different ways.)

William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet (1597):

"Ask for me tomorrow, and you shall find me a grave man."

(Act 1, Scene 1)

 This line is spoken by Mercutio after he has been wounded by Tybalt. Mercutio is making a pun
on the word "grave." On one hand, "grave" can mean serious or solemn, but it also refers to a
burial site. In this context, Mercutio uses the word to suggest both that he will be serious (since
he knows he is dying) and that he will be literally dead — a "grave man." This play on words is a
typical example of Shakespeare’s use of puns, where one word carries multiple meanings to
create both humor and depth in the dialogue.

 Puns are a form of wordplay that exploit multiple meanings or similar-sounding words for
humorous or rhetorical effect.

11. Personification

• Personification is when non-human objects or abstract concepts are given human characteristics.

• Personification brings inanimate objects or natural forces to life, making them more relatable or
meaningful.

• "The wind whispered through the trees."

(The wind is given the human quality of whispering.)

William Wordsworth’s I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud (1807):

"The waves beside them danced; but they

Out-did the sparkling waves in glee:
A poet could not but be gay,
In such a jocund company."

 In this poem, Wordsworth gives human qualities to the "waves," describing them as if they can
"dance" and "out-do" each other in happiness. The waves are being personified because they are
attributed with the human ability to feel and express emotions like joy and gaiety.
 Personification is a common device used by poets to create vivid, relatable images, and it helps
convey the idea that nature is alive and full of energy.

 Personification involves giving human characteristics to non-human things or abstract concepts,

bringing them to life in a way that enhances the reader’s emotional connection to the subject.

To Sum Up

 Figurative language and figures of speech are essential tools in literature that add richness and
depth to the text.

 These figures serve to enhance meaning, evoke emotions, or create aesthetic value in writing.

 By studying these figures, students will be able to analyze texts more deeply and understand the
author's intent more effectively.

Poetry & Forms of Poetry

Poetry

• (MedL (Medieval Latin) poetria based on Gk poétés, ‘doer, creator’)

• It is a comprehensive term which can be taken to cover any kind of metrical composition.

• Poetry is a form of literary expression that emphasizes the rhythmic and aesthetic qualities of
language, used to convey emotions, thoughts, and experiences. Poetry often involves specific
structures, such as rhyme schemes, meter (the rhythmic pattern), and figurative language (e.g.,
metaphors, similes).

• It is characterized by its ability to pack meaning and emotion into a concentrated form, inviting
readers to engage with the language on both an intellectual and emotional level.

• Poetry can follow particular forms…

Forms of Poetry

 Lyric,

 Ode,

 Ballad,

 Sonnet,

 Epic,

 Romance,

 Satire,

 Parody
 1. Lyric
• Lyric poetry is a short form of poetry in which the poet expresses personal emotions, thoughts,
and feelings.
• It typically lacks a narrative structure, focusing instead on conveying a particular emotion or
moment.
• Lyric poems are often written in the first person and are known for their musical quality and
intensity of expression.

William Wordsworth's "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud" is a classic example of lyric poetry.

"I wandered lonely as a cloud,

That floats on high o'er vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host, of golden daffodils;"

 The poem expresses the poet's emotional connection with nature

2. Ode
• An ode is a formal and often lengthy poem that expresses a strong sense of emotion, typically in
praise or admiration of a person, thing, or concept.
• Odes tend to be serious and reflect deep admiration or reverence. They are often written in a
high, dignified style and explore grand themes such as beauty, love, and nature.

• Percy Bysshe Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" is an example of an ode in English literature.
Shelley praises the powerful and transformative force of the wind, using it as a symbol of
inspiration and change:

• "O wild West Wind, thou breath of Autumn's being,

Thou from whose unseen presence the leaves dead
Are driven, like ghosts from an enchanter fleeing,"

3. Ballad
• A short definition of the popular ballad (known also as the folk
ballad or traditional ballad) is that it is a song, transmitted orally, which
tells a story.
• A ballad is a narrative poem that tells a story, often of a tragic or heroic nature.
• Ballads are typically written in short stanzas with a regular rhyme and meter, and they often
feature dialogue or repetitive lines.
• They were traditionally passed down orally and are a prominent form in folk literature.
 • Ballads are thus the narrative species of folk songs, which originate, and are communicated
orally, among illiterate or only partly literate people.
• In all probability the initial version of a ballad was composed by a single author, but he or she is
unknown; and since each singer who learns and repeats an oral ballad is apt to introduce
changes in both the text and the tune, it exists in many variant forms.
• Typically, the popular ballad is dramatic, condensed, and impersonal: the narrator begins with
the climactic episode, tells the story tersely by means of action and dialogue (sometimes by
means of the dialogue alone), and tells it without self-reference or the expression of personal
attitudes or feelings.
• The most common stanza form—called the ballad stanza—is a quatrain in alternate four- and
three-stress lines; usually only the second and fourth lines rhyme. This is the form of "Sir
Patrick Spens"; the first stanza of this ballad also exemplifies the conventionally abrupt opening
and the manner of proceeding by third-person narration, curtly sketched setting and action,
sharp transition, and spare dialogue:

The king sits in Dumferling towne,

Drinking the blude-red wine:
«O whar will I get a guid sailor,
To sail this schip of mine?»

• Samuel Taylor Coleridge's "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" is also an example of a ballad that
tells the tale of a sailor who experiences a supernatural event and is cursed for killing an
albatross:

"Water, water, everywhere,

And all the boards did shrink;
Water, water, everywhere,
Nor any drop to drink."

4. Sonnet

• A sonnet is a 14-line poem, traditionally written in iambic pentameter, with specific rhyme
schemes.
• Sonnets often explore themes of love, beauty, or philosophy.
• There are two major patterns of rhyme in sonnets written in the English language:
• the Petrarchan (Italian) and Shakespearean (English) sonnets.

 The Italian or Petrarchan sonnet (named after the fourteenth century Italian poet Petrarch)
falls into two main parts:
o an octave (eight lines) rhyming abbaabba followed by a sestet (six lines) rhyming cdecde
or some variant, such as cdccdc.
• Petrarch's sonnets were first imitated in England, both in their stanza form and their subject
—the hopes and pains of an adoring male lover—by Sir Thomas Wyatt in the early sixteenth
century.
• The Petrarchan form was later used, and for a variety of subjects, by Milton, Wordsworth,
Christina Rossetti, D. G. Rossetti, and other sonneteers, who sometimes made it technically
 easier in English (which does not have as many rhyming possibilities as Italian) by introducing
a new pair of rhymes in the second four lines of the octave.

A Petrarchan sonnet typically consists of two main sections:

• A) Octave (Eight-line Stanza): 8 lines, following the abbaabba rhyme scheme.
• B) Sestet (Six-line Stanza): 6 lines, typically following the cdecde or cdccdc rhyme schemes.
• This structure is especially common in Petrarchan (Italian) Sonnets,
• where the octave introduces a problem or situation, and the sestet offers a solution or a
resolution.

Octave (Eight-line Stanza): The octave section of a sonnet consists of eight lines, and it typically follows
the rhyme scheme abbaabba.

 An octave rhyme scheme might look like this:

"The sun sets gently on the glowing sea (a)

And evening skies are painted soft with red (b)
The birds fly home as night begins to be (a)
And silence fills the air with shades of dread (b)
A distant light is flickering in the dark (a)
A moon arises with a silver glow (b)
As shadows stretch along the shore and hark (a)
To whispers carried where the cool winds blow (b).

Sestet (Six-line Stanza): The sestet section of a sonnet consists of six lines and typically follows a rhyme
scheme like cdecde or cdccdc.

 The sestet usually provides a resolution, counterargument, or a new perspective that contrasts
or resolves the issue presented in the octave.

 An example of a sestet with the cdecde rhyme scheme:

"The heart must learn to mend and heal in time (c)

While moonlight guides the path from dark to dawn (d)
A steady hope restores the soul’s lost prime (e)
And gentle winds replace the doubts we’ve borne (c)
The sun will rise again beyond the skies (d)
And grant us peace where once we’d felt forlorn (e)."

 (2) The Earl of Surrey and other English experimenters in the sixteenth century also
developed a stanza form called the English sonnet, or else the Shakespearean sonnet, after
its greatest practitioner.
• This sonnet falls into three quatrains and a concluding couplet: abab cdcd efef gg.

A Shakespearean sonnet consists of 14 lines and follows this structure:

• Three quatrains: 12 lines are divided into three separate 4-line sections. Each quatrain
follows this rhyme scheme: abab cdcd efef
 • One concluding couplet: The final two lines form a couplet and follow this rhyme scheme: gg
and provide the conclusion of the poem.

 Sonnet 18:
Quatrain 1:
Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? (a)
Thou art more lovely and more temperate: (b)
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, (a)
And summer's lease hath all too short a date: (b)
Quatrain 2:
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines, (c)
And often is his gold complexion dimmed; (d)
And every fair from fair sometime declines, (c)
By chance or nature's changing course untrimmed; (d)
Quatrain 3:
But thy eternal summer shall not fade (e)
Nor lose possession of that fair thou owest; (f)
Nor shall Death brag thou wanderest in his shade, (e)
When in eternal lines to time thou growest; (f)
Couplet:
"So long as men can breathe or eyes can see, (g)
So long lives this, and this gives life to thee. (g)

5. Epic

• An epic is a long, narrative poem that recounts the deeds of a heroic figure or the history of a
nation.
• Epics are often grand in scope and detail, involving gods, battles, and monumental events. They
are a key form in classical literature.

John Milton's "Paradise Lost" is an epic poem that tells the biblical story of the Fall of Man, detailing
Satan's rebellion and Adam and Eve’s expulsion from Eden:

"Of Man's first disobedience, and the fruit

Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste
Brought death into the World, and all our woe,
With loss of Eden, till one greater Man
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat,"

6. Romance

• Romance poetry typically focuses on heroic adventures, love, and chivalric themes, often set in a
fantastical or idealized world.
 • It deals with the exploits of knights, love stories, and supernatural elements, often presenting an
idealized view of the world.

Sir Walter Scott's "The Lady of the Lake" is a romance poem that explores love, honor, and adventure
set in the Scottish Highlands, combining elements of nature, heroism, and romance:

"The stag at eve had drunk his fill,

Where danced the moon on many a hill,"

7. Satire

• Satire is a form of poetry that uses humor, irony, and exaggeration to criticize or mock societal
norms, individuals, or institutions. It aims to provoke thought or call attention to flaws and
injustices in society.

Alexander Pope's "The Rape of the Lock" is a satirical poem that mocks the trivial concerns of the
upper class in 18th-century England. The poem humorously addresses a minor social event,
exaggerating its importance:

"What mighty contests rise from trivial things,

The unclouded blue of heaven, the high vault of the sky!"

8. Parody

• A Parody is a humorous or satirical imitation of a serious work, genre, or style.

• It exaggerates or distorts the original work for comic effect, often highlighting its weaknesses or
absurdities.

Lord Byron's "Don Juan" is a parody of the epic poem form, where Byron humorously takes the heroic
conventions of the genre and applies them to a seemingly trivial subject, mocking both the form and
society:

"I want a hero: an uncommon want,

When every year and month sends forth a new one,"

To Sum Up

• Each form of poetry offers a unique way of expressing emotions, telling stories, and exploring
themes.

• Lyric poetry focuses on personal feelings, while epic poetry narrates grand heroic tales. Satire
critiques society, and parody humorously imitates works. Sonnets and odes express admiration
 and love, while ballads narrate stories of adventure or tragedy. Romance poems idealize love
and heroism, creating a world of fantasy and beauty.

Versification and Stanza Forms

Versification: Understanding Poetic Structure

 Versification is the study of the rules and patterns governing the form, structure, and rhythm of
poetry. It includes aspects such as meter, rhyme schemes, and stanza forms.

 "How does language affect the mood and meaning of a poem?"

Mood:
1. Word Choice: The specific words an author uses can evoke certain emotions. For example,
words like "dark," "gloomy," and "heavy" might create a somber, melancholic mood, while
words like "bright," "joyful," and "warm" can evoke feelings of happiness and positivity.
2. Tone: The way language is structured in a poem—the level of formality or casualness, the
use of irony, humor, or seriousness—also sets the emotional atmosphere. A poem written
in a light, playful tone might make the reader feel carefree, while a serious or reflective
tone might create a mood of introspection or sadness.
3. Imagery and Sensory Language: Language that appeals to the senses (sight, sound, smell,
touch, and taste) can intensify emotional impact. Describing a scene with vivid sensory
detail can immerse the reader in a specific mood. For instance, the sound of "crashing
waves" or the "sharp scent of pine" might transport a reader to a particular emotional
space tied to nature or memory.

Meaning:
1. Figurative Language: Metaphors, similes, and symbolism are linguistic tools that deepen
the meaning of a poem. They allow the poet to convey complex ideas and emotions
indirectly, giving layers of meaning that can resonate with the reader beyond the literal
level.
2. Rhythm and Sound: The rhythm of a poem—the arrangement of stressed and unstressed
syllables, the use of rhyme or alliteration—can also affect how meaning is perceived. A
steady rhythm might suggest calm or order, while abrupt or uneven patterns can suggest
tension or chaos.
3. Syntax and Structure: The way sentences are structured (simple vs. complex) can influence
the poem’s meaning by controlling the pacing and emphasis. Short, abrupt sentences might
create tension or urgency, while longer, more complex structures might slow the pace and
suggest contemplation or complexity.

 Overall, the language in a poem is its vehicle for both expressing and evoking meaning and
emotion. The deliberate choice of words, images, and structures can direct the reader's
interpretation and emotional response, making language essential in both shaping the mood and
delivering the intended message of the poem.

Poetic Structure, Diction, Tone, Stanza, and Prosody

 Diction and Tone

 Diction: The style of word choice by the poet, impacting meaning and emotional effect.
Types of diction: Elevated diction, colloquial diction, slang.
o Examples:
 William Blake in The Tyger uses elevated diction to create a powerful, intense
atmosphere:
"Tyger Tyger, burning bright, / In the forests of the night."

 Robert Frost in The Road Not Taken uses more colloquial diction with simple,
everyday language:
"Two roads diverged in a yellow wood."
 Tone: The attitude or emotional quality expressed by the poet throughout the poem. It could be
joyful, melancholic, serious, ironic, etc.
o Examples:
 Edgar Allan Poe’s The Raven creates a dark, melancholic tone with its
repetitive refrain: "Nevermore."

 William Wordsworth’s I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud has a cheerful and

peaceful tone, reflecting a serene connection with nature.

Stanza Forms and Prosody

Stanza:
o A stanza is a grouped set of lines in a poem, often separated by a space. Stanzas follow a
particular rhyme scheme or metrical pattern, such as a couplet (2 lines), quatrain (4
lines), or sestet (6 lines).

Shakespeare’s Sonnet 18 (Couplet):

"So long as men can breathe or eyes can see,
So long lives my love, and so long lives she."
 This sonnet ends with a rhymed couplet, where two lines rhyme and conclude
the thought.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" (Quatrain):
"The water, like a silent snake,
Lays still beneath the moon's pale light.
No wind to stir, no ripples break,
The ocean's calm is dark as night."
 The poem follows a quatrain pattern, with alternating rhyme in each stanza.

Prosody:

o Prosody refers to the study of the rhythm, meter, and sound patterns in poetry,
including the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables.
Iambic Pentameter in Shakespeare’s Sonnet 18:
"Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?"

 This line follows iambic pentameter, consisting of 10 syllables, with an

alternating pattern of unstressed and stressed syllables.
 Iambic pentameter is a rhythmic pattern in which each line consists of ten
syllables, arranged in five pairs (or "feet"), with each pair following an
unstressed-stressed pattern (da-DUM).Here’s the first line of Sonnet
Shall I (da-DUM)
comPARE (da-DUM)
THEE to (da-DUM)
a SUM (da-DUM)
mer’s DAY (da-DUM)

How the prosody enhances the rhythm and flow:

• Iambic pentameter creates a natural, flowing rhythm that mirrors the patterns of everyday
speech. This gives the poem a smooth, conversational quality while maintaining a formal
structure.
• The rhythm of iambic pentameter helps to emphasize important words and ideas in the poem.
For instance, the word “summer’s day” is stressed, drawing attention to the metaphor that
drives the sonnet’s central comparison.
• The regular, steady rhythm lends the sonnet a sense of elegance and balance, reinforcing the
timeless beauty Shakespeare is describing in the subject.

Meter, Rhyme, Alliteration, Assonance, Blank Verse, and Free Verse:

Meter:
o Meter refers to the structured pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in each line of
a poem.
• Iambic
• Trochaic
• Anapestic
• Dactylic
• Spondaic
• Monometer
• Dimeter
• Trimeter
• Tetrameter
• Pentameter

1. Iambic Meter (Iambic)

 This meter consists of a pair of syllables (called a "foot") with an unstressed syllable followed by
a stressed syllable. Example: da-DUM.
 Example:
o Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? (Shakespeare, Sonnet 18)
 Usage: Iambic meter is very common in English poetry, especially in sonnets, as it mirrors the
natural rhythm of speech.
  Iambic pentameter is a rhythmic pattern in which each line consists of ten
syllables, arranged in five pairs (or "feet"), with each pair following an
unstressed-stressed pattern (da-DUM).Here’s the first line of Sonnet
Shall I (da-DUM)
comPARE (da-DUM)
THEE to (da-DUM)
a SUM (da-DUM)
mer’s DAY (da-DUM)

2. Trochaic Meter (Trochaic)

 Trochaic meter consists of a pair of syllables with a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed
syllable. This rhythmic pattern is usually represented as DA-da, where the first syllable is
emphasized, and the second is softer.

"BY the shore of Gitche Gumee" (from The Song of Hiawatha by Longfellow)

BY (stressed) + the (unstressed)

shore (stressed) + of (unstressed)
Git (stressed) + che (unstressed)
Gu (stressed) + mee (unstressed)

Each pair of syllables (or "foot") follows the trochaic pattern: DA-da / DA-da / DA-da / DA-da.

 This makes the meter trochaic, because each foot starts with a stressed syllable, followed by an
unstressed one. This creates a strong and emphatic rhythm that is often used in epic poetry and
folk songs.

Features of Trochaic Meter:

• It creates a stronger, more emphatic tone since each foot begins with a stressed syllable.
• It is often found in epic poetry and folk songs because it provides a powerful, rhythmic flow that
is easy for listeners to follow.
• The rhythmic pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables is very natural and resembles patterns
we often encounter in daily speech and the world around us.

3. Anapestic Meter:

 Anapestic meter consists of three syllables, where the first two syllables are unstressed, and the
third syllable is stressed. This gives the pattern: da-da-DUM.
 Anapestic meter has a flowing, faster rhythm and is often used to create a sense of movement or
energy in poetry.
 It's especially useful when the poet wants to convey a sense of lightness or urgency.
 "And the sound of a voice that is heard"
(from The Destruction of Sennacherib by Lord Byron)

Let's break this down syllable by syllable to see how it fits the anapestic meter:
And the (unstressed, unstressed) + sound (stressed)
of a (unstressed, unstressed) + voice (stressed)
that is (unstressed, unstressed) + heard (stressed)

 If we put the stresses together, we get the following pattern: da-da-DUM /

da-da-DUM / da-da-DUM
 Each unit here is an anapestic "foot," and the overall line has three of these
feet, creating a rhythmic pattern of da-da-DUM da-da-DUM da-da-DUM.
 This gives the line a smooth, rolling rhythm that moves forward
energetically.

• The anapestic meter here helps create a sense of movement and speed,
• The rhythm mirrors the sound and momentum of what is being described.

4. Dactylic Meter (Dactylic)

 Dactylic meter consists of three syllables: the first syllable is stressed, and the
following two syllables are unstressed. The rhythmic pattern is represented as: DA-
da-da.
 This meter is often used to create a serious, formal, and rhythmic feel in poetry. It is
commonly found in epic poetry or works that aim to convey a sense of grandeur,
dignity, or formality

"This is the forest primeval."

(from Evangeline by Longfellow)

Let's break this line down syllable by syllable to identify the dactylic meter:
This (stressed) + is (unstressed) + the (unstressed)
for (stressed) + est (unstressed) + pri (unstressed)
pri (stressed) + me (unstressed) + val (unstressed)

Now, let's match these syllables to the DA-da-da pattern:

This is the = DA-da-da
for-est pri = DA-da-da
me-val = DA-da-da

When you arrange them, you get a rhythm of DA-da-da DA-da-da DA-da-da, which is typical of
dactylic meter.

 Dactylic meter lends a serious, stately tone to the line. It's not as light or flowing as anapestic or
iambic meter. The DA-da-da rhythm feels more solemn, making it well-suited for epic poetry,
like Evangeline, which tells a grand, tragic story.
  The first stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables gives the line a dignified, elevated
feel. This is especially effective for epic poetry or poems with a serious, formal tone.

 The stressed syllable at the beginning of each foot gives the line a sense of strong emphasis and
importance, while the unstressed syllables follow more gently, creating a balanced rhythm.

 Dactylic meter can also convey a sense of movement, almost like a rhythmic march or
procession, which is fitting for epic journeys or descriptions of large, imposing subjects like
forests, landscapes, or historical events.

5. Spondaic meter: It consists of two stressed syllables in a single metrical foot, creating a DA-
DA pattern.
 It is used to add emphasis and dramatic effect in poetry. While rarely used as the
primary meter, it can appear occasionally to highlight important words or moments,
making them stand out with a forceful rhythm.

"The Charge of the Light Brigade" by Alfred, Lord Tennyson.

"Cannon to right of them,

Cannon to left of them,
Cannon in front of them"

 Spondaic meter consists of two stressed syllables in one foot (DA-DA), and it can create a
dramatic effect when used in specific moments.

1. First line: "Cannon to right of them,"

Cannon (stressed) + to (stressed) → DA-DA (This part is spondaic)

right (stressed) + of (unstressed) + them (stressed) → This part follows a more iambic pattern,
where it’s not purely spondaic.

So, while the phrase "Cannon to" is spondaic, the rest of the line uses a mix of other meters.

2. Second line: "Cannon to left of them,"

Similar to the first line, "Cannon to" is spondaic, where both "Cannon" and "to" are stressed.

The rest of the line follows a similar pattern as the first.

3. Third line: "Cannon in front of them,"

"Cannon in" is spondaic as well, as both "Cannon" and "in" are stressed.

 In Tennyson’s "Cannon to right of them, Cannon to left of them, Cannon in front of them", the
spondaic meter creates a strong, dramatic rhythm that underscores the urgency and danger the
soldiers face. The repetition of "Cannon" with two stressed syllables creates a sense of intensity
 and impact, drawing attention to the severity of the situation. This use of meter helps evoke the
heavy weight of battle and emphasizes the dire nature of the conflict.

6. Monometer
 Monometer consists of one foot (one pair of syllables) per line. Since one foot typically refers to
two syllables, a monometer line would consist of only two syllables. This meter is often used in
poetry for emphasis and to create a short, powerful impact.

"I am."

 This simple line contains one foot, where "I" is unstressed, and "am" is stressed, making it
iambic monometer.

"Alone.
Alone, I stand."

 Here’s how this works:

The first line, "Alone.", has one foot, with "A" (unstressed) and "lone" (stressed). This is iambic
monometer.

 Monometer is rarely used as a predominant meter because it is so short, but it serves a specific
purpose in poems. It is often employed for:
1. Emphasis: A single, powerful line can make a strong impact by standing out in a poem. The
brevity of monometer makes it memorable.
2. Creating Dramatic Effect: By using a single short line, the poet can create intensity or finality in a
specific moment, such as in battle poetry or a climactic scene.
3. Contrasting Other Meters: Since a monometer is so short, it can serve to contrast longer lines or
more complex meters in a poem, drawing attention to certain key moments or themes.

 Monometer consists of just one foot per line, making it a very short and impactful meter. It is
used sparingly in poetry to create emphasis, drama, or finality.
 Even though it is rarely the main rhythm of a poem, it can be very effective for making a strong
statement or highlighting an important idea with its simplicity and brevity.
 Monometer consists of just one foot per line, making it a very short and impactful meter. It is
used sparingly in poetry to create emphasis, drama, or finality.
 Even though it is rarely the main rhythm of a poem, it can be very effective for making a strong
statement or highlighting an important idea with its simplicity and brevity.

7. Dimeter
A dimeter consists of two feet (two pairs of syllables) per line.
Example:
The sun (da-DUM da-DUM)

 A dimeter consists of two feet (two pairs of syllables) per line.

One foot = 2 syllables
 Two feet = 4 syllables
Dimeter line = Two feet per line
 Each foot typically has two syllables, and the most common types of feet in dimeter are iambic
(da-DUM) or trochaic (DA-da).
 So, a dimeter line would have four syllables in total (two feet).

So, a dimeter line would look like this:

da-DUM da-DUM (iambic dimeter)
DA-da DA-da (trochaic dimeter)

Example:
"The sun" (iambic dimeter)
The (unstressed) + sun (stressed) = da-DUM

• This is one foot of iambic meter.

If we extend this line with another foot, we get:

"The sun sets"
The (unstressed) + sun (stressed) = da-DUM
sets (stressed) = just one stressed syllable, but let's add an unstressed syllable to complete the
second foot:
 "sets in" (unstressed + stressed) = da-DUM

So the line becomes:

"The sun sets in" (da-DUM da-DUM)

 This line now has two feet (each foot with two syllables), and it follows the iambic dimeter
pattern.

 Dimeter is often used in short, rhythmic poetry, where the poet wants to maintain a faster pace
or create a more abrupt, staccato rhythm. It's a relatively short meter, so it can also give a
sense of conciseness or clarity.
 Dimeter consists of two feet per line, with each foot typically containing two syllables. It's a
short and rhythmic meter used to create a quick, sometimes punchy, effect in poetry. By using
two feet, poets can maintain a strong, consistent rhythm without overwhelming the reader with
long lines.