A body of science that studies the origin,

evolution and eventual fate of the universe

• The origin of the universe and life is based on

religious beliefs of a specific tradition
• The concept of creatio ex nihilo
• God creating the universe as written in the
book of Genesis
• the origin of universe based on scientific
insights, studies and experiments
• Nicolaus Copernicus and the heliocentric
nature of the universe
• The expanding universe through Albert
Einstein’s theory of relativity
• The Big Bang theory
• Scientists believe that the formation
of the universe began through the
explosion of a primordial atom which
happened 13 billion years ago.

• It became a theory that also explains

the continuous expansion of the
universe.
• one-dimensional point
which contains a huge
• basic homogeneity in
mass in an infinitely small distribution of matter
space in the universe was
• density and gravity established as a
become infinite and consequence of the
space-time curves
infinitely first phase of inflation
• laws of physics as we Singularity Inflation
know them cease to
operate

Recom- Nucleo-
bination synthesis
• the formation of the • the nuclear fusion
capture of free and the formation of
electrons by the new nuclei actions in
cations in a plasma. the early stages of
development of the
universe.
• Also known as primordial nucleosynthesis
• The process of producing light elements
during the big bang expansion.
• It yields two stable isotopes of hydrogen,
two isotopes of helium, some lithium atoms
and beryllium isotopes.
• The word “stellar” means star and the formation of elements in
the center of the star is called stellar nucleosynthesis.
• Carl Sagan said that “We are made of star stuff.”
• Elements heavier than beryllium were formed through stellar
nucleosynthesis
 Giant cloud of gas and dust
Nebula known as NEBULA.

Protostar

A PROTOSTAR is formed
Main Sequence Star from nebula due to the
gravity that pulled Hydrogen
gas together until it spins
faster and faster and
becomes ignited.

MAIN SEQUENCE STAR starts

to form when nuclear fusion
occurs at the core of the
star, it begins to contract,
glow and become stable.
Hydrogen is converted into
Helium
 A more massive main sequence
star evolves, cools and expands
faster than low mass star and will
Nebula turn into RED SUPER GIANT star,
the largest known star. Carbon
fusion still occurs and Oxygen
formed.
Protostar
Explosion of star or
SUPERNOVA releases
Main Sequence Star large amount of energy.
Because of that,
elements are dispersed
into the space.
Red Super
Giant

Supernova
BLACK HOLE is a region in It is believed that a
space where gravity is too NEUTRON STAR is formed
strong that no matter can from supernova explosion.
escape from it. This is also the smallest star.

Neutron Star Black hole

 The star is unable to generate
heat when it runs out of
hydrogen in its core leading to
its contraction and expansion.
Nebula It cools down and glows red.
The Helium fused into Carbon.
The star is now RED GIANT
Protostar

Red giant star becomes

Main Sequence Star exhausted of nuclear fuel, the
outer material is blown off into
space leaving the inert Carbon.
Red Red Super The remnant is known as
Giant Giant WHITE DWARF.

White
Dwarf Supernova
This is said to be the remain of
the white dwarf that cooled
Black down and no longer emits light
Dwarf and heat. The hypothetical
Neutron Star Black hole BLACK DWARF.
Hans Bethe
• Elucidated how energy is produced in stars via
hydrogen burning
❑ Hydrogen burning refers to a set of stellar
reactions resulting in the production of He-4
from H
o Responsible for producing energy in stars
o Two dominant processes
➢ Proton-proton chain reaction
(responsible for the formation of helium
cores)
➢ Carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle
 • Chain reaction by which a star
transforms H into He
• Occurs in the main sequence star
1. Beta-plus decay: two proton fuse to
form
o a deuteron (deuterium nucleus)
o a positron (a positively-charged
electron)
o a neutrino
2. Deuterium burning: Deuterium fuses
with proton to yield He-3 and γ
3. Fusion of two He-3 to form He-4 and
two Hydrogen
 • Dominant source of energy in stars
about 1.3 times more massive than the
sun
• Main source of He for such stars upon
recycling 12C and finishing the whole
cycle
1. Proton capture: 12C fuses with proton
to form 13N and γ
2. Beta-plus decay: 13N producing 13C, a
positron and a neutrino
3. Fusion of 13C with proton to yield 14N
and γ
Helium Burning
• refers to a set of stellar nuclear reactions
that uses helium to produce energy and
heavier elements such as Be, O, Ne and Fe
• Also responsible for producing energy in
stars
• Two dominant processes
o Triple-alpha process
o Alpha process
 • Tri alpha process happens in red giant
star once they leave the stage of main
sequence star.
• Set of two-stage nuclear fusion
reactions converting three alpha
particles (He-4 nuclei) into 12C

1. Two alpha particles fuse to yield 8Be

and γ
2. 8Be fuses with another alpha particle
to form 12C and γ
 • Set of nuclear reactions that convert
He into heavier elements
• The reactions consume He and
ultimately ends at Fe
o 56Fe is the most stable element,
having the lowest mass to nucleon
(mass number) ratio
1. Increases the core size and density by
forming heavier elements
2. Vital in transforming main sequence
4. The process continues where the
stars to supergiants
product captures an extra alpha
3. Reactions capture an alpha particle
particle until it produces the last atom
and release a γ
in the series (52Fe)
❖ 12C captures an alpha particle
5. All atoms produced are from even-
(4He) to make 16O, then 16O
numbered elements
captures an alpha particle to
produce 20Ne
Neutron capture starts with a neutron being P-process starts with the addition of a p to a
added to a seed nucleus nucleus after a supernova is formed

This starting reaction would then produce a The tremendous amount of energy available
heavier isotope of the element. allows the addition of a p to the nucleus.
Produces a heavier nucleus that is different
from the seed nucleus

This starting reaction would then produce a

heavier isotope of the element. Beta decay
results in an increase in the number of protons
of the nucleus by one

A heavier nucleus of a new element is formed

• S-process happens when there is a • R-process happens when there is a
small number of available neutrons large number of available neutrons
o The rate of neutron capture is slow o The rate of neutron capture is fast
compared to the rate of beta that an unstable nucleus may still
decay (hence the term slow) be combined with another neutron
• Happens when there is a slow rate of prior to beta decay (hence the term
capturing neutron while there is a rapid)
faster rate of radioactive decay • Faster rate of capturing neutron
hence increasing the proton by 1. before it undergoes radioactive decay
thus, more neutrons can be combined
at the nucleus
• Happens in a supernova forming
heavier elements than Iron with the
process known as supernova
nucleosynthesis.
• The atomic number is the number of protons (positively charged
particles) in an atom.

• Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys Moseley was an English physicist who

demonstrated that the atomic number, the number of protons in
an atom, determines most of the properties of an element.

• In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear

transmutation reaction a process of transforming one element or
isotope into another element.

• In 1925, there were four vacancies in the periodic table

corresponding to the atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87.
 • Elements with atomic numbers 43 and 85 were synthesized using
particle accelerators.
• A particle accelerator is a device that is used to speed up the
protons to overcome the repulsion between the protons and
the target atomic nuclei by using magnetic and electrical
fields. It is used to synthesize new elements.

• Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic number

of uranium) are called transuranium elements. They were
discovered in the laboratory using nuclear reactors or particle
accelerators.

Physical Science Module 2