Information and

Communication Technologies

1
 Information Communication Technologies (ICTs)

► ICT infrastructure:
► Set of physical devices and software required to operate an
enterprise
► Set of companywide services including:
► Computing platforms providing computing services
► Telecommunications services
► Data management services
► Application software services
► Physical facilities management services
► IT management, standards, education, research and development
services

Adapted from (Laudon and Laudon, 2020)

2
 ICT Infrastructure
CONNECTION BETWEEN THE ORGANISATION, IT INFRASTRUCTURE, & BUSINESS
CAPABILITIES
Depicts an
interdependence
between technology
& IS strategy

ICT infrastructure should support the organization’s business and

information systems strategy. New information technologies have a
powerful impact on business and IT strategies, as well as the services
that can be provided to
3 customers.
 ICT Infrastructure (Some History)

► Evolution of IT infrastructure
► General-purpose mainframe & minicomputer era: 1959 to present
► 1958 IBM’s first mainframes introduced (centralized computing)
► 1965 Less expensive DEC minicomputers introduced (decentralization)
► Personal computer era: 1981 to present
► 1981 Introduction of IBM PC
► Proliferation in 80s, and 90s resulted in the growth of personal software
► Client/server era: 1983 to present
► Desktop clients networked to servers, with processing work split between clients and
servers
► The network may be two-tiered or multi-tiered (N-tiered)
► Various types of servers (network, application, Web)

4
 IT Infrastructure

STAGES IN IT
INFRASTRUCTURE
EVOLUTION

Pictorial five eras of IT

infrastructure evolution.

5
 IT Infrastructure
► Evolution of IT infrastructure (cont.)
► Enterprise computing era: 1992 to present
► Move toward integrating disparate networks, applications using
Internet standards and enterprise applications
► Cloud Computing: 2000 to present
► Refers to a model of computing where firms and individuals obtain
computing power and software applications over the Internet or
other network
► Fastest growing form of computing

6
 IT Infrastructure

STAGES IN IT
INFRASTRUCTURE
EVOLUTION (cont.)

Pictorial illustration of IT evolution

7
 IT Infrastructure
A MULTITIERED CLIENT/SERVER NETWORK (N-TIER)

In a multi-tiered client/server network, client requests for

service are handled by different levels of servers.
8
 Infrastructure Components
► ICT Infrastructure has 7 main components
1. Computer hardware platforms
2. Operating system platforms
3. Enterprise software applications
4. Data management and storage
5. Networking/telecommunications platforms
6. Internet platforms
7. Consulting system integration services

9
 IT Infrastructure
THE IT INFRASTRUCTURE
ECOSYSTEM
There are seven major components that must be
coordinated to provide the firm with a coherent
IT infrastructure. Listed here are major
technologies and suppliers for each component.

IT Consultants in Zimbabwe

Black Forest

The Cross Platform

Belina Payroll

Solution Centre

Arachnid Design

www.zimbabweyp.com/browes-business-directory

10
 Infrastructure Components
► Computer hardware platforms
► Client machines
► Desktop PCs, mobile devices – PDAs, laptops
► Servers
► Blade servers: ultrathin computers stored in racks
► Mainframes:
► IBM mainframe equivalent to thousands of blade servers
► Top chip producers: AMD, Intel, IBM
► Top firms: IBM, HP, Dell, Sun Microsystems

11
 Infrastructure Components
► Operating system platforms
► Operating systems
► Server level: Windows; Unix or Linux
► Client level:
► Microsoft Windows (XP, 2000, 2010, etc.)
► Handheld device OS’s (Android, Apple’s iOS, Microsoft)
► Cloud computing OS’s (Google’s Chrome OS, MS Windows Azure, Netvibes)
► Enterprise application providers: SAP and Oracle

12
 Infrastructure Components
► Data management and storage
► DBMS Examples:
► Oracle, Microsoft (SQL Server), Sybase (Adaptive Server
Enterprise)
► MySQL Desktop applications)
► ObjectDB (NoSQL database example)
► Gemstone (object-oriented database)
► Storage area networks (SANs): Connect multiple storage
devices on a dedicated network

13
 Infrastructure Components
► Networking/telecommunications platforms
► Telecommunication service providers
► Telecommunications, cable, and telephone company charges for
voice lines and Internet access
► Telone, Powertel, ZOL, Econet, Comone etc
► Network operating systems:
► Windows Server, Novell, Linux, Unix
► Network hardware providers:
► Cisco, Alcatel-Lucent, Nortel, Huwaei, etc.

14
 Infrastructure Components

► Internet platforms
► Hardware, software, management services to support company Web
sites, (including Web hosting services) intranets, extranets
► Internet hardware server market: Dell, HP/Compaq, IBM, etc.
► Web development tools/suites: Microsoft (FrontPage, .NET) IBM
(WebSphere), Sun (Java), independent software developers: Adobe,
RealMedia

15
 Hardware Platform Trends

► The emerging mobile digital platform

► Cell phones, smartphones (BlackBerry, iPhone)
► Have assumed data transmission, Web surfing, e-mail, and IM
duties
► Netbooks:
► Small, low-cost lightweight notebooks optimized for wireless
communication and core computing tasks
► Tablets (iPad, Samsung, etc.)
► Networked e-readers (Kindle)
► Smartphones(Samsung,

16
 Hardware Platform Trends

► Grid computing
► Connects geographically remote computers into a single network to
combine processing power and create virtual supercomputer
► Avails idle computing power to the application that mostly needs it.
► Grid computing requires software programs to control and allocate
resources on the grid
► Provides cost savings, speed, agility, maximum resource utilization
► Royal Dutch/Shell Group is an example case that has benefited from
using this technology

17
 Hardware Platform Trends
► Virtualization
► Allows a single physical resource to act as multiple resources (i.e., run
multiple instances of OS)
► Reduces hardware and power expenditures
► Facilitates hardware centralization
► Increases equipment utilization rates, conserving data center space and
energy usage
► Higher utilization rates translate into fewer computers required to process
the same amount of work
► Allows businesses to run their legacy applications on older versions of an
operating system on the same server as newer applications
18
Hardware Platform Trends
Cloud Computing
Characterized by:-
► On-demand self-service: Individuals can obtain computing capabilities such as
server time or network storage on their own.
► Ubiquitous network access: Individuals can use standard network and Internet
devices, including mobile platforms, to access cloud resources.
► Location-independent resource pooling: Computing resources are pooled to serve
multiple users, with different virtual resources dynamically assigned according to
user demand. The user generally does not know where the computing resources are
located.
► Rapid elasticity: Computing resources can be rapidly provisioned, increased, or
decreased to meet changing user demands.
► Measured service: Charges for cloud resources are based on the amount of
resources actually used.

19
 Hardware Platform Trends
Cloud computing ct’d
► Of various forms
► Infrastructure as a service - use of processing, storage, networking, and other
computing resources
► Platform as a service -use of infrastructure and programming tools hosted by
the service provider to develop applications
► Software as a service -use of software hosted by the vendor on the vendor’s
hardware and delivered over a network
► Cloud can be public or private
► Allows companies to minimize IT investments
► Drawbacks: Concerns of security, reliability

20
 Hardware Platform Trends
► Green computing
► Practices and technologies for manufacturing, using, disposing of computing and
networking hardware with minimal or no impact on the environment
► Computing equipment has its share of negative impact on the environment

► To do: List here 3 impacts ICTs have on the environment.

21
 Hardware Platform Trends
► Autonomic computing
► Industry-wide effort to develop systems that can configure, heal
themselves when broken, and protect themselves from outside
intruders
► Similar to self-updating antivirus software; Apple and Microsoft both
use automatic updates

► High-performance, power-saving processors

► Multi-core processors for the purposes of:

► enhanced performance,
► reduced power consumption,
► more efficient simultaneous processing of multiple tasks
22
 Software Platform Trends
► Linux and open-source software
► Open-source software: Produced by community of
programmers, free and modifiable by user
► Linux: Open-source software OS

► Software for the Web

► Java:
► Object-oriented programming language
► Operating system, processor-independent

23
 Software Platform Trends

► Web Services
► Software components that exchange information using Web standards and
languages
► XML: Extensible Markup Language
► More powerful and flexible than HTML
► Tagging allows computers to process data automatically

► SOAP: Simple Object Access Protocol

► Rules for structuring messages enabling applications to pass data and instructions

► WSDL: Web Services Description Language

► Framework for describing Web service and capabilities

► UDDI: Universal Description, Discovery, and Integration

► Directory for locating Web services

24
 Software Platform Trends
► SOA: Service-oriented architecture
► Set of self-contained services that communicate with each other to
create a working software application
► Software developers reuse these services in other combinations to
assemble other applications as needed
► Example: an “invoice service” to serve whole firm for calculating and
sending printed invoices

25
 Software Platform Trends
► Software outsourcing and cloud services
► Three external sources for software:
1. Software packages and enterprise software
2. Software outsourcing (domestic or offshore)
► Domestic:
► Primarily for middleware, integration services, software support
► Offshore:
► Primarily for lower-level maintenance, data entry, call centers, although
outsourcing for new-program development is increasing

26
 Software Platform Trends
► Three external sources for software (cont.)
3. Cloud-based software services
► Software as a service (SaaS)
► Accessed with Web browser over Internet
► Ranges from free or low-cost services for individuals to business and enterprise
software
► Users pay on subscription or per-transaction, e.g. Salesforce.com, Bytes Technology
Group(zw), Dandemutande (zw), Google, Microsoft Azure, Amazon Web Services
(AWS)
► Service Level Agreements (SLAs): formal agreement with service providers

27
 Software Platform Trends

► Software outsourcing and cloud services

► Mashups
► Combinations of two or more online applications, such as combining
mapping software (Google Maps) with local content, e.g. combining
addresses and pictures of universities with Google map to create a map
mashup
► Apps
► Small pieces of software that run on the Internet, on your computer, or on
your cell phone
► iPhone, BlackBerry, Android
► Generally delivered over the Internet

28
 ICT Management Issues
I. Dealing with platform and infrastructure change
► As businesses shrink or grow, ICT needs to be flexible and scalable
► Scalability:
► Ability to expand to serve larger numbers of users
► For mobile computing and cloud computing
► New policies and procedures for managing these new platforms should
be put in place
► Contractual agreements with firms running clouds and distributing
software required

29
 Infrastructure Management Issues

II. Management and governance

► Who controls ICT infrastructure?
► How should the ICT department be organized?
► Centralized
► Central ICT department makes decisions
► Decentralized
► Business unit ICT departments make own decisions
► How are costs allocated between divisions, departments?

30
 Management Issues
III. Making wise infrastructure investments
► Amount to spend on ICT is complex question
► Rent vs. buy or outsourcing
► Total cost of ownership (TCO) model
► Analyzes direct and indirect costs
► Hardware, software account for only about 20% of TCO
► Other costs: Installation, training, support, maintenance, infrastructure,
downtime, space and energy
► Also includes cost of housing the infrastructure, & energy
► TCO can be reduced through use of cloud services, greater centralization
and standardization of hardware and software resources

31
Competitive forces model for IT infrastructure investment
1. Market demand for firm’s services
2. Firm’s business strategy
3. Firm’s IT strategy, infrastructure, and cost
4. Information technology assessment
5. Competitor firm services
6. Competitor firm IT infrastructure investments

Can be used to address how much an organisation should

Spend on IT infrastructure

32
 Management Issues
COMPETITIVE FORCES MODEL FOR IT INFRASTRUCTURE

There are six factors you can use to answer the question, “How
much should our
33 organization spend on IT infrastructure?”
 TCO Analysis
Firm’s business strategy.
Analyse organisation’s five-year business strategy to establish new services
and capabilities that will be required to achieve strategic goals.

Firm’s ICT strategy, infrastructure, and cost.

► Analyse organisation’s information technology plans for the next five years
and assess its alignment with the firm’s business plans.
► Determine the total ICT infrastructure costs.
► If organisation has no ICT strategy, there is need to devise one that takes into
account the firm’s five-year strategic plan.

34
 TCO Analysis
ICT assessment.
► Determine organization’s position in the technology curve
► Avoid lagging behind or being at the bleeding edge of information technology
► Invest in technologies for which standards have been established and IT vendors are
competing on cost, not design, and where there are multiple suppliers.

Competitor firm’s ICT services.

► Assess what technology services competitors offer to customers, suppliers, and
employees.
► Establish quantitative and qualitative measures to compare them to those of your
firm.
► Aim for a competitive advantage with IT investment

35
 TCO Analysis
Competitor firm ICT infrastructure investments.
► Benchmark your expenditures for ICT infrastructure against your
competitors.
► Research on competitor’s ICT based performance
► Visit their website
► Ensure your organization is at par or ahead of competitor in terms of ICT
investment

36
 TCO Analysis
Market demand for your firm’s services.
► Analyze services currently provided to customers, suppliers, and
employees.
► Deal with each group to find out if the services you currently offer are
meeting their needs.
► Any complaints from customers, suppliers and internal employees might
warrant investing in ICT

37