UNIT 3

Here’s a detailed explanation of Resource Description Framework (RDF) including its

features and how it helps in capturing knowledge:

Resource Description Framework (RDF)

RDF is a W3C standard used to represent information about resources on the web. It is
the foundation of the Semantic Web, helping data to be shared and reused across different
platforms and applications.

Main Purpose of RDF

To describe resources in a structured and machine-readable way using subject-predicate-
object statements called triples.

Key Features of RDF

Feature Description

1. Triple-based Model Represents data as Subject - Predicate - Object triples.

Enables sharing and integration of data across different

2. Interoperability
systems.

3. URI-based Uses URIs (Uniform Resource Identifiers) to uniquely

Identification identify resources.

Suitable for heterogeneous data, unlike traditional relational

4. Flexibility
databases.

5. Schema-Free (but
RDF doesn’t require a fixed schema, making it adaptable.
extensible)

When combined with RDFS or OWL, RDF supports

6. Support for Inference
reasoning and inferencing.

7. Integration with XML RDF can be serialized in XML for easy data exchange.

8. Support for Metadata Excellent for representing metadata (e.g., author, date, topic).
 How RDF Captures Knowledge
RDF captures knowledge using triples, which consist of:
1. Subject → the resource (e.g., a person, a book).
2. Predicate → the property or relationship (e.g., hasAuthor, bornIn).
3. Object → the value or another resource.

Example in RDF Triples:

Let’s describe a book:

Triple Component Value

Subject http://example.com/book/1

Predicate http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/title

Object "Introduction to Semantic Web"

This means:
"The book identified by URL has the title 'Introduction to Semantic Web'"

Capturing Knowledge with RDF – How it Works

1. Modular Representation
o Each piece of information is a small fact (triple).
o Can be easily combined with other RDF data.
2. Links Between Data
o By using URIs, RDF can connect related information across datasets.
3. Describing Relationships
o RDF lets you describe how resources are related (e.g., Person A knows
Person B).
4. Machine Understandable
o Unlike HTML, RDF allows machines to understand the meaning of data, not
just display it.
5. Enables Reasoning
o With ontologies (like RDFS/OWL), machines can infer new knowledge from
existing RDF data.
 Example Scenario:
Imagine a university RDF dataset:

Subject Predicate Object

ex:Student123 ex:enrolledIn ex:CourseAI

ex:CourseAI ex:hasInstructor ex:ProfSmith

ex:ProfSmith ex:worksAt ex:UnivABC

From this, machines can infer:

Student123 is learning from someone who works at UnivABC.

Conclusion
RDF is a powerful tool for representing structured knowledge on the web in a flexible,
machine-readable way.
Its triple-based model, use of URIs, and compatibility with ontology languages (like
RDFS/OWL) allow it to capture complex knowledge and support intelligent web
applications.
Let me know if you want this as a PDF or want a diagram to go with it.

XML Technologies in Detail

XML (eXtensible Markup Language) is a markup language used to store and transport data.
Over time, several related technologies have been developed to query, style, link, and
present XML data. These are known as XML technologies.

1. XPath (XML Path Language)

XPath is used to navigate through elements and attributes in an XML document.
• It selects nodes (elements, attributes, texts).
• It uses path expressions (like file paths).
• Often used in XSLT, XQuery, and programming APIs (like DOM).

Example:
/bookstore/book/title
Selects all <title> elements inside <book> inside <bookstore>.
 2. The Style Sheet Family: XSL, XSLT, XSL-FO

a. XSL (eXtensible Stylesheet Language)

An umbrella term for styling XML documents. Includes:

b. XSLT (XSL Transformations)

Used to transform XML documents into other formats like HTML, text, or another XML.

Example: Convert an XML book list into an HTML webpage.

<xsl:template match="book">
<html><body>
<h2><xsl:value-of select="title"/></h2>
</body></html>
</xsl:template>

c. XSL-FO (Formatting Objects)

Used for print-style formatting of XML data, usually to generate PDFs.
• Works with formatting engines (e.g., Apache FOP).
• Defines page layout, font, margin, etc.

3. XQuery
XQuery is a powerful query language for extracting and manipulating XML data.
• Similar to SQL but for XML.
• Supports complex joins, filtering, grouping.

Example:
for $b in doc("books.xml")//book
where $b/price > 30
return $b/title
Finds all book titles where the price is greater than 30.

4. XLink (XML Linking Language)

XLink adds hyperlinking capabilities to XML documents.
• Supports simple and extended links (e.g., many-to-many).
• More advanced than HTML <a> tags.
 Example:
<book xlink:type="simple" xlink:href="http://example.com"/>

5. XPointer
XPointer is used to locate parts of XML documents, especially for linking and
annotations.
• Works with XPath expressions.
• Used with XLink to point to a specific location in XML.

Example:
Points to the title of the third book.

6. XInclude (XML Inclusion)

XInclude allows you to merge external XML documents into one document.
• Like import/include in programming.
• Helps in managing large XML data.

Example:
<xi:include href="chapter1.xml" xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude"/>

7. XML Base
XML Base provides a way to define a base URI for resolving relative links in XML
documents.

Example:
<book xml:base="http://example.com/books/">
<link href="intro.html"/>
</book>
The link becomes: http://example.com/books/intro.html

8. XHTML (eXtensible Hypertext Markup Language)

XHTML is a stricter version of HTML written in XML syntax.
• All tags must be properly closed.
 • Tags must be properly nested.
• Makes HTML documents XML-compliant.

Example:
<img src="image.png" alt="Image" />

9. XForms
XForms is the XML-based replacement for HTML forms.
• Separates data, logic, and presentation.
• Supports dynamic form validation, web services, and multi-part input.

Example:
<xforms:input ref="email">
<xforms:label>Email:</xforms:label>
</xforms:input>

10. SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics)

SVG is an XML-based language for describing 2D graphics and visual effects.
• Used to create vector images, which are scalable without loss of quality.
• Supported by modern browsers.

Example:
<svg height="100" width="100">
<circle cx="50" cy="50" r="40" fill="blue" />
</svg>

Summary Table

Technology Purpose

XPath Navigate elements in XML

XSL / XSLT Style and transform XML

XSL-FO Print formatting (PDF etc.)

XQuery Query and retrieve XML data

Technology Purpose

XLink Create hyperlinks in XML

XPointer Point to parts of XML documents

XInclude Include external XML content

XML Base Define base URIs

XHTML Strict HTML in XML syntax

XForms Advanced web forms using XML

SVG Vector graphics in XML

1. XPath (XML Path Language)

What is XPath?
XPath stands for XML Path Language. It is a query language used to navigate and select
parts of an XML document.
Think of it like the address of an element in an XML file—just like you use folder paths to
find files on your computer.

Purpose of XPath
• To locate and select nodes (elements, attributes, text, etc.) in XML.
• Used in technologies like:
o XSLT (for transforming XML)
o XQuery (for querying XML)
o XPointer
o DOM parsers in programming (Java, JavaScript, etc.)

XPath Syntax Basics

XPath uses path-like expressions similar to file directories:

Syntax Meaning Example

/ Root node /bookstore

// Anywhere in the document //book

Syntax Meaning Example

. Current node .

.. Parent node ..

@ Attribute @id

Example XML:
<bookstore>
<book category="fiction">
<title lang="en">Harry Potter</title>
<author>J.K. Rowling</author>
<price>29.99</price>
</book>
</bookstore>

Common XPath Expressions

Expression Result

/bookstore/book Selects all <book> under <bookstore>

//title Selects all <title> elements in the document

/bookstore/book[1] Selects the first <book>

//book[@category='fiction'] Selects all books with category="fiction"

//title[@lang='en'] Selects all titles with lang="en"

//book/title/text() Gets the text value of all <title>

XPath Data Types

XPath returns the following data types:
• Node-set: A set of matched nodes.
• Boolean: true/false (e.g., conditions).
• String: Text values.
• Number: Numeric values extracted or counted.
 XPath Functions (Examples)

Function Description Example

text() Returns text content //title/text()

contains() Checks if value contains a string contains(title, 'Harry')

position() Position of node /bookstore/book[position()=1]

last() Last element //book[last()]

count() Count matching nodes count(//book)

XPath in Real Use-Cases

• In XSLT to pick which elements to transform.

• In XQuery to filter or extract data.

• In XML parsers to locate elements programmatically.

• In XForms to bind form fields to XML data.

• In testing tools (like Selenium) to locate elements on a web page.

Conclusion
XPath is a powerful language for navigating XML. It helps identify specific elements,
extract values, and apply transformations.
It is a foundation for many other XML technologies and is essential for working with
structured XML data.

The Style Sheet Family: XSL, XSLT, and XSL-FO

What is XSL?
XSL stands for eXtensible Stylesheet Language.
It is a family of languages used to describe how to present, format, and transform XML
documents.
 XSL Family Includes:

Component Full Form Purpose

Transforms XML into other formats (HTML,

XSLT XSL Transformations
plain text, XML)

Formats XML for print output (e.g., PDF

XSL-FO XSL Formatting Objects
documents)

XML Path Language

XPath Helps select parts of the XML data
(supporting tool)

1. XSLT – XSL Transformations

What is it?
XSLT is used to transform an XML document into a different format using template rules.

Key Features:
• Converts XML into HTML, text, or another XML.
• Uses XPath to find and match elements.
• Defines rules/templates to handle each part of XML.

Simple Example:
XML Input:
<book>
<title>XML Basics</title>
<author>John</author>
</book>
XSLT Stylesheet:
<xsl:template match="book">
<html>
<body>
<h1><xsl:value-of select="title"/></h1>
<p><xsl:value-of select="author"/></p>
</body>
</html>
</xsl:template>

Output: A styled HTML webpage based on XML content.

2. XSL-FO – XSL Formatting Objects

What is it?
XSL-FO is used to define how XML content should be formatted for print or paginated
media (e.g., PDF).

Key Features:
• Controls layout: font, color, size, page size, alignment, etc.
• Used with rendering engines like Apache FOP.
• Suitable for generating reports, invoices, and print-ready documents.

Simple Example:
<fo:block font-size="12pt" color="blue">
This is a blue paragraph in PDF.
</fo:block>
This block defines a paragraph with a specific font and color.

3. XPath – XML Path Language

Although not a direct stylesheet, XPath is an essential part of XSLT and XSL-FO.

Used For:
• Navigating through elements and attributes in XML.
• Selecting nodes like:
o /bookstore/book[1]/title
o //price[@currency='USD']

It helps XSLT find the exact data to transform or style.

 Why Use the XSL Family?

Feature Benefit

Data Reusability Same XML data can be reused in multiple presentation formats

Separation of
Keeps data and presentation separate for flexibility
concerns

XSL-FO helps produce high-quality printable documents like

Print-friendly output
PDFs

XSLT allows conversion of XML to browser-friendly formats

Web Transformation
(HTML)

Summary Table

Component Role Example Output

XSLT Transforms XML HTML page, Text report

XSL-FO Styles XML for print PDF, paginated documents

XPath Selects elements from XML /book/title, @id

Conclusion
The XSL family makes XML powerful and practical by allowing:
• Transformation with XSLT
• Selection using XPath
• Styling for print using XSL-FO
It is widely used in web development, document generation, and data publishing.

XQuery – XML Query Language

What is XQuery?
XQuery stands for XML Query Language.
It is used to query, extract, and manipulate data from XML documents, similar to how
SQL works for databases.
Think of XQuery as "SQL for XML".
 Purpose of XQuery
• To retrieve specific data from XML files.
• To transform XML data into another structure.
• To join, filter, sort, and calculate values in XML.
• To generate new XML, HTML, or plain text documents from XML.

Where is XQuery used?

• In databases that store data in XML format (like BaseX, eXist-db).
• In web services to fetch and manipulate XML responses.
• In document publishing systems.
• In data integration and XML APIs.

XQuery Syntax Basics

XQuery is functional in style and uses expressions like FLWOR:

FLWOR Expression
FLWOR = For, Let, Where, Order by, Return
Example:
for $x in /bookstore/book
where $x/price < 30
return $x/title

This query finds the titles of all books that cost less than 30.

Sample XML:
<bookstore>
<book category="fiction">
<title>Harry Potter</title>
<author>J.K. Rowling</author>
<price>29.99</price>
</book>
<book category="non-fiction">
 <title>Learn XML</title>
<author>John Smith</author>
<price>45.00</price>
</book>
</bookstore>

Output:
<results>
<item>Harry Potter</item>
<item>Learn XML</item>
</results>

Features of XQuery

Feature Description

Powerful Selection Uses XPath to locate and extract data

Data Transformation Converts XML into new formats

Supports Functions Allows loops, conditions, custom functions

Combines Data Can join multiple XML documents

Flexible Output Can return XML, HTML, JSON, or plain text

Difference Between XPath, XSLT, and XQuery

Feature XPath XSLT XQuery

Role Select data Transform XML Query and manipulate XML

Output Nodes/Values New XML/HTML/Text XML/HTML/Text

Style Declarative Template-based SQL-like functional style

 Conclusion
XQuery is a powerful language for querying and reshaping XML data.
It is widely used where structured data is stored in or exchanged as XML, making it essential
for:
• Web developers
• Data engineers
• XML-based applications
• Document generation systems

XLink (XML Linking Language)

What is XLink?
XLink is used to create hyperlinks in XML documents, just like HTML uses <a> tags.
But unlike HTML, XLink can create richer, more flexible links—such as:
• Multiple targets
• Bidirectional links
• Links stored outside the actual document

Purpose:
• To link one or more XML documents together.
• To allow external linking, multi-directional linking, and extended links.

Basic XLink Example:

<book xlink:type="simple"
xlink:href="http://example.com/details.xml"
xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
Learn More
</book>

This makes the <book> element a hyperlink pointing to details.xml.

 Types of Links in XLink

Type Description

Simple Like an HTML <a href> link

Extended Connects multiple resources

Locator Refers to the target of a link

Arc Describes the relationship between resources

Resource Defines content that is linked to

Title Gives human-readable title to the link

Real Use Cases:

• Linking XML product catalogs to detailed product pages
• Building interactive XML-based documents
• Enabling external resources in XML workflows

XPointer (XML Pointer Language)

What is XPointer?
XPointer is used to point to specific parts inside an XML document, like a bookmark.
It is often used with XLink to create links to specific elements or fragments in another
XML file.
Think of XPointer as the XML version of anchors (#id) in HTML.

Example:
<chapter xlink:href="book.xml#xpointer(/book/chapter[2])"
xlink:type="simple"
xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
Go to Chapter 2
</chapter>

This link goes to the second <chapter> element in book.xml.

 XPointer Syntax:
• Based on XPath.
• Can point to:
o An element by name or position
o An element by ID
o Specific character ranges

Example Pointers:

XPointer Syntax Description

xpointer(/book/title) Points to the <title> inside <book>

#xpointer(id('chap1')) Points to element with ID = chap1

Points to characters 10 to 30 in the first

#xpointer(string-range(//para[1], '', 10, 20))
<para>

XLink vs XPointer

Feature XLink XPointer

Role Creates links between XML docs Points to specific parts of XML docs

Similar to HTML links (<a href>) HTML anchors (#id)

Based on Own linking syntax Based on XPath

Inside the same or another XML

Works With Other XMLs
document

Conclusion
• XLink is for creating advanced hyperlinks in XML.
• XPointer allows pointing to exact parts inside XML.
• Together, they offer powerful document navigation in XML systems.
These are useful in:
• Digital publishing
• XML-based documentation, Web services and linked data systems
 XML Technologies Covered:
• XInclude
• XMLBase
• XHTML
• XForms
• SVG

XInclude (XML Inclusion)

What is XInclude?
XInclude is a way to include one XML document inside another.
It’s like a “copy-paste” mechanism for XML content.

Example:
<document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
<title>Main Document</title>
<xi:include href="chapter1.xml"/>
</document>

This will include the content of chapter1.xml inside the current XML file.

Use Cases:
• Reusing standard content (headers, footers)
• Managing large XML files by breaking them into smaller parts
• Maintaining consistency across documents

XMLBase

What is XMLBase?
XMLBase allows you to define a base URI for resolving relative links inside an XML
document.
 Example:
<root xml:base="http://example.com/">
<doc href="file1.xml"/>
</root>

The href="file1.xml" will be treated as http://example.com/file1.xml.

Use Cases:
• Useful in documents with relative URLs
• Helps when XML is distributed across web or file servers

XHTML (Extensible HyperText Markup Language)

What is XHTML?
XHTML is a reformulation of HTML using the rules of XML.
It is stricter and cleaner than traditional HTML, making it easier to process by XML tools.

Key Differences (HTML vs XHTML):

Feature HTML XHTML

Syntax Lenient Strict

Must be properly
Tags Can be unclosed
closed

Tags are case-

Case Case-insensitive
sensitive

Parsing Not always XML-compliant Fully XML-compliant

Example XHTML:
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head><title>My Page</title></head>
<body>
<p>Hello, world!</p>
</body>
</html>

Note: All tags are properly closed and lowercase.

XForms

What is XForms?
XForms is an XML-based language used to build web forms.
It is a replacement for HTML forms with richer data handling and XML binding.

Key Features:
• Separates data, logic, and presentation
• Can validate data on the client side
• Supports dynamic behavior and multiple data models

Basic Example:
<xforms:model>
<xforms:instance>
<data>
<name/>
</data>
</xforms:instance>
</xforms:model>
<xforms:input ref="name">
<xforms:label>Enter your name:</xforms:label>
</xforms:input>

This form binds the input field to the XML element <name>.

SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics)

What is SVG?
SVG is an XML-based language for creating vector graphics — like shapes, images, and
animations.
Unlike raster images (JPG, PNG), SVGs are scalable without losing quality.

Example:
<svg width="100" height="100" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
<circle cx="50" cy="50" r="40" stroke="green"
stroke-width="4" fill="yellow" />
</svg>

This creates a yellow circle with a green border.

SVG Features:
• Easily scalable (responsive graphics)
• Can be styled with CSS or animated with JavaScript
• Used in charts, maps, icons, logos, etc.

Summary Table

Technology Purpose

XInclude Merges multiple XML files into one

Sets base URL for resolving relative

XMLBase
paths

Cleaner, XML-based version of

XHTML
HTML

XML-based forms with better data

XForms
control

XML for scalable graphics and

SVG
drawings