ENGLISH PHONOLOGY

9th Group:
1. Aisya Vietansul Ula(202210402254)
2. Sophi Pebrianti (202210402275)

Lecture:
Drs. Nurhamid, MM.
Summary of Chapter 9: syllables

I. Definition of syllables
A syllable is a unit of spoken language that forms an entire word or parts of words.
Syllables are usually made up of a single vowel sound and any surrounding consonant
sounds. For instance, the word ‘butter’ contains two syllables: ‘but’ and ‘ter’.
A syllable is a single, unbroken vowel sound within a spoken word. They typically
contain a vowel, or two if one is silent, and perhaps one or more accompanying consonants.
All words are made from at least one syllable.
Syllables are sometimes referred to as the 'beats' of a word that form its rhythm, and
breaking a word into syllables can help English learners with phonetic spelling. Another way
to describe a syllable is a 'mouthful' of a word!
are some examples of words with different numbers of syllables:
'Tie' has one syllable.
'Rescue' has two syllables - Res + cue
'Alphabet' has three syllables - Al + pha + bet
'Activity' has four syllables - Ac + tiv + i + ty
'Electricity' has five syllables - E + lec + tri + ci + ty
A word with only one syllable can be called monosyllabic. There are names for other
syllable amounts in words too: disyllabic for two, trisyllabic for three and quadrisyllabic for
four. Or, you can just refer to them as polysyllabic if they have more than one
II. component of syllables
the general structure of a syllable (σ) consists of three segments. These segments are
grouped into two components:
Onset (ω): A consonant or consonant cluster, obligatory in some languages, optional or even
restricted in others
Rime (ρ): Right branch, contrasts with onset, splits into nucleus and coda
Nucleus (ν): A vowel or syllabic consonant, obligatory in most languages
Coda (κ): A consonant or consonant cluster, optional in some languages, highly restricted or
prohibited in others
The syllable is usually considered right-branching, i.e. nucleus and coda are grouped
together as a "rime" and are only distinguished at the second level.
The nucleus is usually the vowel in the middle of a syllable. The onset is the sound or
sounds occurring before the nucleus, and the coda (literally 'tail') is the sound or sounds that
follow the nucleus. They are sometimes collectively known as the shell. The term rime covers
the nucleus plus coda. In the one-syllable English word cat, the nucleus is a (the sound that
can be shouted or sung on its own), the onset c, the coda t, and the rime at. This syllable can
be abstracted as a consonant-vowel-consonant syllable, abbreviated CVC. Languages vary
greatly in the restrictions on the sounds making up the onset, nucleus and coda of a syllable,
according to what is termed a language's phonotactics.
III. Type of syllable
1) Closed Syllable
A closed syllable is a word unit with a single vowel that ends with a consonant. These have
short sounds such as bat, plant, shop and rabbit.
2) Open Syllable
An open syllable is a word unit that ends with a single vowel such as go, me, you and potato.
There are more types of syllables that you might come across in more advanced grammar,
including:
● magic 'e' or vowel-consonant -e;
● R-controlled syllables;
● diphthong (vowel team);
● and consonant 'le'.
3) Vowel-consonant-e Syllable (VCE)
These syllables end in a final silent 'e' (hence why they're nicknamed magic 'e' syllables) with
a consonant just before the silent 'e'. The silent 'e' makes the vowel before the consonant have
a long sound. Here are some examples:
● line
● cute
● mine
● pine
4) R-controlled Syllable (VR)
In r-controlled syllable words, there's always a vowel followed by an 'r'. The 'r' gives the
word a unique sound. Examples of VR words:
● her
● fur
● ear
● for
● purr
This kind of syllable is taught after open, closed and VCE syllables
5) Diphthong (vowel team) Syllable
A diphthong syllable usually has two vowels next to each other which are pronounced
together, which is why they're dubbed 'vowel teams' - the vowels work together as a syllable.
The vowel combinations are typically:
● ai
● ay
● ow
● oe
● ie
Here are examples of words with diphthong syllables:
● tail;
● play;
● grow;
● oboe;
● eight;
In some words, there are two vowels next to each other, but the combination is reversed when
compared to a diphthong syllable where the vowels are pronounced
6) Consonant 'le' Syllable
These syllables have no vowel sound - the silent 'e' at the end of the syllable works as the
only vowel. You only pronounce the consonant and the 'l'. Examples of words with the 'le'
syllable:
● maple
● purple
● turtle
 ● ripple
Children learn these syllables after they've mastered all the other syllables first.
IV. Onset Maximalism
Onset maximalism is a phonological principle that assigns the maximum number of
consonants possible to the onset of a syllable, provided the resulting syllable is well-formed
according to the phonotactic rules of the language. This principle ensures that consonants are
grouped into the onset as long as they adhere to permissible onset clusters. For example, in
the word "leader," the syllabification is lea•der rather than lead•er. This grouping ensures
that the /d/ is assigned to the onset of the second syllable, maintaining a permissible cluster.
Similarly, in "oyster," the syllabification is oys•ter rather than oyst•er, as the /st/ cluster
forms a valid onset for the second syllable. However, not all consonant clusters can follow
this principle. In "extra," the syllabification is ek•stra instead of eks•tra, as the /ks/ cluster
cannot form a valid onset in English. Similarly, in "apple," the syllabification is ap•ple
because the /pl/ cluster is not permissible as the onset of the second syllable. These examples
illustrate the constraints imposed by the phonotactic rules of English.
V. Phonological Processes
Phonological processes demonstrate how syllable structure impacts sound production
and variation. One key process is aspiration, where voiceless stops (/p/, /t/, /k/) are aspirated
when they occur at the beginning of a stressed syllable. For instance, in "pill" [pʰɪl], the /p/ is
aspirated because it is syllable-initial, whereas in "spill" [spɪl], the /p/ is unaspirated as it
follows /s/ and is not syllable-initial. Another example is "cat" [kʰæt], where the /k/ is
aspirated, compared to "scat" [skæt], where it is not.
The pronunciation of /l/ also varies based on its position in the syllable. Clear [l]
appears in the onset, as in "light" and "leaf," while dark [ɬ] appears in the coda, as in "milk"
and "feel." For instance, "lucky" [lʌki] features a clear [l] in the onset, while "bowl" [boʊl]
features a dark [ɬ] in the coda. A similar positional influence occurs with /r/ in non-rhotic
accents, such as British Received Pronunciation (RP), where /r/ is pronounced only in onset
positions and is silent in codas. For example, in "red" [ɹɛd], the /r/ is pronounced in the onset,
whereas in "car" [kɑː], the /r/ is silent in the coda.
VI. Ambisyllabicity
Ambisyllabicity occurs when a consonant serves as both the coda of one syllable and
the onset of the next. This phenomenon is common in English and is influenced by stress and
syllable weight. For example, in "bottle" [ˈbɒt.əl], the /t/ functions as the coda of the first
syllable and the onset of the second. Similarly, in "letter" [ˈlɛt.ə], the /t/ bridges both
syllables. For ambisyllabicity to occur, three conditions must be met: the first syllable must
be stressed, the first syllable must require a coda for weight, and the following syllable must
need an onset for structural integrity. For instance, in "bottle," the first syllable is stressed,
and the /t/ satisfies both the coda requirement for the first syllable and the onset requirement
for the second. In contrast, words like "banana" [bəˈnɑː.nə] do not exhibit ambisyllabicity, as
the /n/ clearly belongs to the onset of the second syllable.
VII. Literary Applications of Syllable Constituents
Syllable structure is integral to literary devices such as alliteration and rhyme.
Alliteration involves the repetition of the same onset consonant across words, which is often
used for poetic and rhetorical effect. For example, phrases like "big brown bears bumble by"
and "wild winds whistle wildly" showcase the repetition of initial consonants to create a
rhythmic and memorable effect.
Poetic rhyme, on the other hand, relies on the matching of the rhyme portion (nucleus
+ coda) of syllables. For example, "light" and "night" ([laɪt] vs. [naɪt]) form a perfect rhyme
because both the nucleus and coda match. Near rhymes, such as "love" and "move," feature a
similar coda but differ in their nucleus. These literary applications highlight the aesthetic and
structural significance of syllable constituents in poetry and prose.
VIII. Syllable weight
Syllable weight is determined by the complexity of the rhyme and whether the
syllable is open (no coda) or closed (with a coda). Light syllables contain a short vowel with
no coda, as in the first syllable of "happy" [ˈhæ.pi]. Heavy syllables, on the other hand,
contain a long vowel, diphthong, or a coda, as in "end" [ɛnd], where the coda makes the
syllable heavy. Syllable weight plays a critical role in stress placement within words. For
example, in "photograph" [ˈfəʊ.təɪ.græf], the first syllable is heavy and receives stress,
whereas in "photography" [fəˈtɒg.rə.fi], stress shifts to the second syllable as it becomes
heavy. Additionally, syllable weight influences poetic meter, where heavy syllables often
align with stressed beats. For example, in the line "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?"
heavy syllables correspond to the stressed positions, creating a rhythm that enhances the
poetic flow.