BIOLOGY

CHAPTER- 2
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
NOTES:
INTRODUCTION:

 Humans are sexually reproducing and viviparous.

 Reproductive events include:

 Formation of gametes (gametogenesis): sperms in males, ovum in females.

 Transfer of sperms into female genital tract (insemination).
 Fusion of gametes (fertilisation) → formation of zygote.
 Formation and development of blastocyst.
 Attachment of blastocyst to uterine wall (implantation).
 Embryonic development (gestation).
 Delivery of baby (parturition).

 These events occur after puberty.

 Male and female reproductive events differ:

 Sperm formation continues in old age in men.

 Ovum formation stops around 50 years in women.

 Next focus: male and female reproductive systems

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:

 Male reproductive system is in the pelvic region.

 Includes:

 Pair of testes
 Accessory ducts
 Glands
 External genitalia

 Testes are located outside the abdomen in the scrotum.

 Scrotum maintains testicular temperature 2–2.5°C lower than body temperature

(needed for spermatogenesis).

 Adult testis:

 Oval-shaped
 Size: 4–5 cm long, 2–3 cm wide

 Testis is covered by a dense layer.

 Each testis has ~250 compartments called testicular lobules.

 Each testicular lobule contains 1–3 highly coiled seminiferous tubules.

 Seminiferous tubules produce sperms.

 Lined internally by two types of cells:

 Male germ cells (spermatogonia) → undergo meiosis to form sperms.

 Sertoli cells → provide nutrition to germ cells.
 Interstitial spaces (outside tubules) contain:

 Blood vessels
 Interstitial (Leydig) cells → synthesize and secrete androgens (testicular
hormones).
 Immunologically competent cells.

 Male sex accessory ducts:

 Rete testis
 Vasa efferentia
 Epididymis
 Vas deferens

 Seminiferous tubules open into vasa efferentia via rete testis.

 Vasa efferentia connect to epididymis along the posterior surface of each testis.

 Epididymis leads to vas deferens, which ascends to the abdomen and loops
over the urinary bladder.

 Vas deferens receives duct from seminal vesicle and opens into urethra as the
ejaculatory duct.

 Ducts store and transport sperms from the testis to the outside via urethra.

 Urethra originates from urinary bladder and extends through the penis to the
external opening (urethral meatus).

 The penis is the male external genitalia.

 Made up of special tissue that helps in erection for insemination.

 The enlarged end is called the glans penis.

 The glans penis is covered by a loose fold of skin called the foreskin.

 Male accessory glands include:

 Paired seminal vesicles

 Prostate Gland
 Paired bulbourethral glands

 Secretions of these glands form seminal plasma, rich in:

 Fructose
 Calcium
 Certain enzymes

 Bulbourethral glands also secrete for lubrication of the penis.

THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:

 Female reproductive system includes:

 Pair of ovaries
 Pair of oviducts
 Uterus
 Cervix
 Vagina
 External genitalia (in pelvic region)
 Along with a pair of mammary glands, they support:

 Ovulation
 Fertilisation
 Pregnancy
 Birth
 Child care

 Ovaries are the primary female sex organs.

 Functions:

 Produce ova (female gametes)

 Secrete steroid hormones (ovarian hormones)

 Location: one on each side of the lower abdomen.

 Size: about 2–4 cm in length.

 Connected to pelvic wall and uterus by ligaments.

 Structure:

 Covered by thin epithelium.

 Inside: ovarian stroma divided into:
o Peripheral cortex
o Inner medulla

 Female accessory ducts include:

 Oviducts (fallopian tubes)

  Uterus
 Vagina

 Each fallopian tube:

 Length: 10–12 cm
 Extends from ovary to uterus

 Parts of fallopian tube:

 Infundibulum (funnel-shaped, near ovary)

o Has finger-like fimbriae to collect ovum after ovulation.
 Ampulla (wider part after infundibulum)
 Isthmus (last part with narrow lumen, joins uterus)

 Uterus (womb) is single and shaped like an inverted pear.

 Supported by ligaments attached to pelvic wall.

 Uterus opens into vagina through the narrow cervix.

 Cervical canal + vagina = birth canal.

 Uterine wall has three layers:

 Perimetrium (external thin membrane)

 Myometrium (middle thick smooth muscle layer)
 Endometrium (inner glandular layer)

 Functions:

 Endometrium: undergoes cyclical changes during menstrual cycle.

  Myometrium: shows strong contractions during baby delivery.

 Female external genitalia include:

 Mons pubis
 Labia majora
 Labia minora
 Hymen
 Clitoris

 Mons pubis: fatty cushion covered by skin and pubic hair.

 Labia majora: fleshy folds extending from mons pubis around vaginal
opening.

 Labia minora: paired folds beneath labia majora.

 Hymen: membrane partially covering vaginal opening; can tear during:

 First intercourse (coitus)

 Sudden falls, jolts
 Use of tampons
 Sports activities (horse riding, cycling, etc.)

 Clitoris: tiny, finger-like structure at upper junction of labia minora, above

urethral opening.

 Hymen presence/absence is not a reliable indicator of virginity .

 Functional mammary glands are a characteristic of all female mammals.

 Mammary glands (breasts) are paired structures with:

 Glandular tissue
 Variable amount of fat

 Structure:

 Glandular tissue divided into 15–20 mammary lobes.

 Each lobe contains clusters of alveoli.

 Alveoli:

 Cells secrete milk stored in alveolar lumens.

 Alveoli open into mammary tubules.

 Mammary tubules of each lobe → form mammary duct.

 Several mammary ducts → form mammary ampulla.

 Mammary ampulla connects to lactiferous duct (milk is sucked out through it).

GAMETOGENESIS:

 Primary sex organs:

 Testis in males
 Ovaries in females

 They produce gametes (sperms and ovum) through gametogenesis.

 In testes:
  Immature male germ cells (spermatogonia) produce sperms via
spermatogenesis, starting at puberty.
 Spermatogonia multiply by mitotic division inside seminiferous tubules.
 Spermatogonia are diploid (46 chromosomes).

 Some spermatogonia differentiate into primary spermatocytes.

 Primary spermatocytes undergo first meiotic division (reduction division) to

form:

 Two equal haploid secondary spermatocytes (23 chromosomes each).

 Secondary spermatocytes undergo second meiotic division to form:

 Four equal haploid spermatids (23 chromosomes each).

 Spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa (sperms) by spermiogenesis.

 After spermiogenesis:

 Sperm heads embed into Sertoli cells.

 Sperms are released from seminiferous tubules by spermiation.

 Spermatogenesis starts at puberty due to an increase in gonadotropin

releasing hormone (GnRH).

 GnRH is a hormone secreted by the hypothalamus.

 Increased GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete:

 Luteinising hormone (LH)

 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
 LH:

 Acts on Leydig cells.

 Stimulates synthesis and secretion of androgens.
 Androgens stimulate spermatogenesis.

 FSH:

 Acts on Sertoli cells.

 Stimulates secretion of factors that help in spermiogenesis.

 Sperm structure:

 Parts: Head, Neck, Middle piece, Tail.

 Entire sperm is covered by a plasma membrane.

 Sperm head:

 Contains elongated haploid nucleus.

 Covered by acrosome (cap-like structure with enzymes that aid
fertilisation).

 Middle piece:

 Contains many mitochondria.

 Provides energy for tail movement (important for motility and fertilisation).

 During one coitus:

 About 200–300 million sperms are ejaculated.

 For normal fertility:
 o At least 60% sperms must have normal shape and size.
o At least 40% sperms must show vigorous motility.

 Sperms released from seminiferous tubules are transported by accessory

ducts.

 Secretions from:

 Epididymis
 Vas deferens
 Seminal vesicle
 Prostate
are essential for sperm maturation and motility.

 Semen = Seminal plasma + Sperms.

 Functions of male accessory ducts and glands are maintained by testicular

hormones (androgens).

 Oogenesis: Process of formation of mature female gamete.

 Different from spermatogenesis.

 Starts during embryonic development:

 Millions of oogonia (gamete mother cells) formed in fetal ovary.

 No new oogonia formed after birth.

 Oogonia:

 Begin division and enter prophase-I of meiosis.

  Get arrested at this stage as primary oocytes.

 Each primary oocyte gets surrounded by granulosa cells to form a primary

follicle.

 Many follicles degenerate from birth to puberty.

 At puberty, only about 60,000–80,000 primary follicles remain in each ovary.

 Primary follicles:

 Surrounded by additional granulosa layers and a new theca.

 Become secondary follicles.

 Secondary follicle transforms into tertiary follicle.

 Tertiary follicle:

 Has a fluid-filled cavity called antrum.

 Theca layer differentiates into:
o Theca interna (inner layer)
o Theca externa (outer layer)

 At this stage:

 Primary oocyte grows and completes first meiotic division.

 Division is unequal, producing:
o Large haploid secondary oocyte (retains most cytoplasm)
o Small first polar body.

 Tertiary follicle matures into Graafian follicle.

 Secondary oocyte forms a protective layer called zona pellucida.

 Graafian follicle ruptures to release the secondary oocyte by ovulation.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE:

 Menstrual cycle: Reproductive cycle in female primates (monkeys, apes,

humans).
 Menarche: First menstruation at puberty.
 Cycle duration: ~28/29 days.
 One ovum is released during mid-cycle (around 14th day).

Phases of Menstrual Cycle:

1. Menstrual phase (3–5 days):

o Breakdown of endometrial lining and blood vessels.
o Menstrual flow occurs if ovum is not fertilised.
2. Follicular phase:
o Primary follicles grow into mature Graafian follicle.
o Endometrium regenerates (proliferates).
o Gradual rise in FSH and LH levels.
o Estrogen secretion increases.
3. Ovulation (Ovulatory phase):
o LH surge at mid-cycle causes Graafian follicle rupture and ovum
release.
4. Luteal phase:
o Remaining Graafian follicle becomes corpus luteum.
o Corpus luteum secretes progesterone (maintains endometrium).
  If fertilisation does not occur:
o Corpus luteum degenerates.
o Endometrium breaks down → Menstruation starts.
 If fertilisation occurs:
o Menstrual cycle stops during pregnancy.
 Menopause: Cessation of menstrual cycle (~50 years).

FERTILISATION AND IMPLANTATION:

 During copulation (coitus), semen is released into the vagina (insemination).

 Motile sperms:

 Swim rapidly.
 Pass through the cervix.
 Enter the uterus.
 Reach the ampullary region of the fallopian tube.

 Ovum is also transported to the ampullary region after release from ovary.

 Fertilisation occurs only if sperms and ovum meet simultaneously in the

ampullary region.

 Not all copulations lead to fertilisation and pregnancy.

 Fertilisation is the fusion of a sperm with an ovum.

 During fertilisation:

 The sperm contacts the zona pellucida of the ovum.

 This induces membrane changes blocking the entry of additional sperms.
  Only one sperm can fertilise the ovum.
 Acrosomal secretions help the sperm enter the cytoplasm of the ovum.
 This triggers the completion of the meiotic division of the secondary oocyte.
 The second meiotic division is unequal, forming a second polar body and a
haploid ovum (ootid).
 The haploid sperm nucleus and haploid ovum nucleus fuse to form a
diploid zygote.

 The zygote will have 46 chromosomes (23 from sperm, 23 from ovum).

 The sex of the baby is determined at this stage:

 XX leads to a female baby.

 XY leads to a male baby.

 Father determines the baby's sex scientifically, not the mother.

 The mitotic division begins as the zygote moves through the isthmus of the
oviduct towards the uterus.

 This process is called cleavage, forming daughter cells called blastomeres.

 The embryo with 8 to 16 blastomeres is called a morula.

 The morula divides further, transforming into a blastocyst.

 The blastomeres in the blastocyst form:

 An outer layer called trophoblast.

 An inner group of cells, the inner cell mass.
 The trophoblast attaches to the endometrium of the uterus.

 The inner cell mass begins to differentiate into the embryo.

 After attachment, the uterine cells divide rapidly, covering the blastocyst.

 The blastocyst becomes embedded in the endometrium. This process is called

implantation.

 Implantation marks the beginning of pregnancy.

PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT:

 After implantation, finger-like projections appear on the trophoblast, called

chorionic villi.

 The chorionic villi are surrounded by uterine tissue and maternal blood.

 The chorionic villi and uterine tissue interdigitate (interlock) with each other.

 This forms a structural and functional unit between the developing embryo
(fetus) and the maternal body, called the placenta.

 The placenta facilitates:

 The supply of oxygen and nutrients to the embryo.

 The removal of carbon dioxide and waste materials produced by the
embryo.

 The placenta is connected to the embryo through the umbilical cord, which
helps in transporting substances to and from the embryo.
 The placenta acts as an endocrine tissue, producing several hormones,
including:

 hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin).

 hPL (human placental lactogen).
 Estrogens.
 Progestogens.

 In the later phase of pregnancy, relaxin is secreted by the ovary.

 hCG, hPL, and relaxin are produced only during pregnancy.

 During pregnancy, the levels of other hormones, such as:

 Estrogens.
 Progestogens.
 Cortisol.
 Prolactin.
 Thyroxine.

Are increased severalfold in maternal blood.

 The increased production of these hormones supports:

 Fetal growth.
 Metabolic changes in the mother.
 Maintenance of pregnancy.

 Immediately after implantation, the inner cell mass (embryo) differentiates

into:
  An outer layer called ectoderm.
 An inner layer called endoderm.

 A mesoderm appears between the ectoderm and the endoderm.

 These three layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) give rise to all
tissues and organs in adults.

 The inner cell mass contains stem cells which have the potential to give rise to
all tissues and organs.

 Human pregnancy lasts 9 months.

 After one month of pregnancy, the embryo's heart is formed.

 The first sign of the growing fetus can be detected by listening to the heart
sound through a stethoscope.

 By the end of the second month, the fetus develops limbs and digits.

 By the end of 12 weeks (first trimester), most major organ systems are
formed, such as:

 Limbs and external genital organs are well-developed.

 Fifth month:

 The first movements of the fetus are observed.

 Hair appears on the head.

 By the end of 24 weeks (second trimester):

  The body is covered with fine hair.
 Eyelids separate and eyelashes are formed.

 By the end of nine months of pregnancy, the fetus is fully developed and
ready for delivery.

PARTURITION AND LACTATION:

 Human pregnancy lasts about 9 months and is called the gestation period.

 At the end of pregnancy, uterine contractions cause the expulsion or delivery

of the fetus, a process called parturition (childbirth).

 Parturition is induced by a complex neuroendocrine mechanism.

 The signals for parturition originate from:

 The fully developed fetus.

 The placenta.

 These signals induce mild uterine contractions called the fetal ejection
reflex, which triggers the release of oxytocin from the maternal pituitary.

 Oxytocin acts on the uterine muscles, causing stronger uterine contractions,

which stimulate further secretion of oxytocin.

 This stimulatory reflex between uterine contractions and oxytocin secretion

results in stronger and stronger contractions, leading to the expulsion of the
baby through the birth canal.
 After the infant is delivered, the placenta is expelled from the
uterus.

 The mammary glands of the female undergo differentiation during

pregnancy.

 They start producing milk towards the end of pregnancy through the process
called lactation, which helps the mother feed the newborn.

 The milk produced in the initial days of lactation is called colostrum.

 Colostrum contains several antibodies, which are crucial for developing

immunity in the newborn.

 Breastfeeding during the initial period of infant growth is recommended by

doctors to help raise a healthy baby.