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 Introduction to Quantum Field Theory

Quantum field theory provides a theoretical framework for understanding fields and the
particles associated with them, and is the basis of particle physics and condensed matter
research. This graduate-level textbook provides a comprehensive introduction to quantum
field theory, giving equal emphasis to operator and path-integral formalisms. It covers
modern research such as helicity spinors, BCFW construction, and generalized unitarity
cuts, as well as treating advanced topics including BRST quantization, loop equations, and
finite-temperature field theory. Various quantum fields are described, including scalar and
fermionic fields, abelian vector fields and quantum electrodynamics (QED), and finally
non-abelian vector fields and quantum chromodynamics (QCD). Applications to scattering
cross-sections in QED and QCD are also described. Each chapter ends with exercises and
an important concepts section, allowing students to identify the key aspects of the chapter
and test their understanding.

Horaţiu Năstase is a Researcher at the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the State University
of São Paulo, Brazil. To date, his career has spanned four continents. As an undergraduate
he studied at the University of Bucharest and Copenhagen University. He later completed
his Ph.D. at the State University of New York, Stony Brook, before moving to the Insti-
tute for Advanced Study, Princeton University, New Jersey, where his collaboration with
David Berenstein and Juan Maldacena defined the pp-wave correspondence. He has also
held research and teaching positions at Brown University, Rhode Island and the Tokyo
Institute of Technology. He has published three other books with Cambridge University
Press: Introduction to the AdS/CFT Correspondence (2015), String Theory Methods for
Condensed Matter Physics (2017), and Classical Field Theory (2019).
Introduction to Quantum Field
Theory

H OR A ŢIU N ĂSTASE
State University of São Paulo, Brazil

With material from unpublished

notes by Jan Ambjorn
and Jens Lyng Petersen
 University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi – 110025, India
79 Anson Road, #06–04/06, Singapore 079906

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108493994
DOI: 10.1017/9781108624992
© Cambridge University Press 2020
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2020
Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd. Padstow Cornwall
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Nastase, Horatiu, 1972– author.
Title: Introduction to quantum field theory / Horatiu Nastase
(Universidade Estadual Paulista, Sao Paulo).
Description: Cambridge, United Kingdom ; New York, NY : Cambridge
University Press, 2020. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019006491| ISBN 9781108493994 (alk. paper) |
ISBN 1108493998 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Quantum field theory.
Classification: LCC QC174.45 .N353 2020 | DDC 530.14/3–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019006491
ISBN 978-1-108-49399-4 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of
URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
 To the memory of my mother,
who inspired me to become a physicist
 Contents

Preface page xxv

Acknowledgments xxvi
Introduction xxvii

I Quantum Fields, General Formalism, and Tree Processes 1

1 Review of Classical Field Theory: Lagrangians, Lorentz Group and its Representations,
Noether Theorem 3
1.1 What is and Why Do We Need Quantum Field Theory? 3
1.2 Classical Mechanics 6
1.3 Classical Field Theory 6
1.4 Noether Theorem 8
1.5 Fields and Lorentz Representations 9
Further Reading 11
Exercises 12

2 Quantum Mechanics: Harmonic Oscillator and Quantum Mechanics in Terms of Path

Integrals 13
2.1 The Harmonic Oscillator and its Canonical Quantization 13
2.2 The Feynman Path Integral in Quantum Mechanics in Phase Space 15
2.3 Gaussian Integration 18
2.4 Path Integral in Configuration Space 19
2.5 Correlation Functions 19
Further Reading 21
Exercises 22

3 Canonical Quantization of Scalar Fields 23

3.1 Quantizing Scalar Fields: Kinematics 23
3.2 Quantizing Scalar Fields: Dynamics and Time Evolution 25
3.3 Discretization 27
3.4 Fock Space and Normal Ordering for Bosons 28
3.4.1 Fock Space 28
3.4.2 Normal Ordering 29
3.4.3 Bose–Einstein Statistics 30
Further Reading 30
Exercises 31
vii
viii Contents

4 Propagators for Free Scalar Fields 32

4.1 Relativistic Invariant Canonical Quantization 32
4.2 Canonical Quantization of the Complex Scalar Field 33
4.3 Two-Point Functions and Propagators 35
4.4 Propagators: Retarded and Feynman 37
4.4.1 Klein–Gordon Propagators 37
4.4.2 Retarded Propagator 38
4.4.3 Feynman Propagator 38
Further Reading 39
Exercises 40

5 Interaction Picture and Wick Theorem for λφ 4 in Operator Formalism 41

5.1 Quantum Mechanics Pictures 41
5.1.1 Schrödinger Picture (Usual) 42
5.1.2 Heisenberg Picture 42
5.1.3 Dirac (Interaction Picture) 42
5.2 Physical Scattering Set-up and Interaction Picture 43
5.2.1 λφ 4 Theory 43
5.3 Evolution Operator and the Feynman Theorem 44
5.4 Wick’s Theorem 47
Further Reading 49
Exercises 49

6 Feynman Rules for λφ 4 from the Operator Formalism 50

6.1 Diagrammatic Representation of Free Four-Point Function 50
6.2 Interacting Four-Point Function: First-Order Result
and its Diagrammatic Representation 51
6.3 Other Contractions and Diagrams 52
6.4 x-Space Feynman Rules for λφ 4 53
6.5 p-Space Feynman Rules and Vacuum Bubbles 54
6.5.1 Canceling of the Vacuum Bubbles in Numerator vs.
Denominator in Feynman Theorem 55
Further Reading 57
Exercises 57

7 The Driven (Forced) Harmonic Oscillator 59

7.1 Set-up 59
7.2 Sloppy Treatment 60
7.3 Correct Treatment: Harmonic Phase Space 64
Further Reading 66
Exercises 67

8 Euclidean Formulation and Finite-Temperature Field Theory 68

8.1 Phase-Space and Configuration-Space Path Integrals
and Boundary Conditions 68
ix Contents

8.2 Wick Rotation to Euclidean Time and Connection with Statistical

Mechanics Partition Function 70
8.3 Quantum-Mechanical Statistical Partition Function and Correlation
Functions 72
8.4 Example: Driven Harmonic Oscillator 73
Further Reading 75
Exercises 75

9 The Feynman Path Integral for a Scalar Field 77

9.1 Euclidean Formulation 77
9.2 Perturbation Theory 78
9.3 Dyson Formula for Perturbation Theory 79
9.4 Solution of the Free Field Theory 80
9.5 Wick’s Theorem 81
Further Reading 82
Exercises 82

10 Wick’s Theorem for Path Integrals and Feynman Rules Part I 83

10.1 Examples 83
10.2 Wick’s Theorem: Second Form 86
10.3 Feynman Rules in x Space 87
Further Reading 89
Exercises 89

11 Feynman Rules in x Space and p Space 91

11.1 Proof of the Feynman Rules 91
11.2 Statistical Weight Factor (Symmetry Factor) 92
11.3 Feynman Rules in p Space 93
11.4 Most General Bosonic Field Theory 95
Further Reading 97
Exercises 97

12 Quantization of the Dirac Field and Fermionic Path Integral 98

12.1 The Dirac Equation 98
12.2 Weyl Spinors 100
12.3 Solutions of the Free Dirac Equation 101
12.4 Quantization of the Dirac Field 103
12.5 The Fermionic Path Integral 105
12.5.1 Definitions 105
Further Reading 108
Exercises 109

13 Wick Theorem, Gaussian Integration, and Feynman Rules for Fermions 110
13.1 Gaussian Integration for Fermions 110
13.1.1 Gaussian Integration – The Real Case 110
13.1.2 Real vs. Complex Integration 112
x Contents

13.2 The Fermionic Harmonic Oscillator and Generalization to Field

Theory 112
13.3 Wick Theorem for Fermions 115
13.4 Feynman Rules for Yukawa Interaction 116
Further Reading 118
Exercises 118

14 Spin Sums, Dirac Field Bilinears, and C, P, T Symmetries for Fermions 120
14.1 Spin Sums 120
14.2 Dirac Field Bilinears 121
14.3 C, P, T Symmetries for Fermions 122
14.3.1 Parity 123
14.3.2 Time Reversal 125
14.3.3 Charge Conjugation 126
Further Reading 127
Exercises 128

15 Dirac Quantization of Constrained Systems 129

15.1 Set-up and Hamiltonian Formalism 129
15.2 System with Constraints in Hamiltonian Formalism:
Primary/Secondary and First/Second-Class Constraints 130
15.3 Quantization and Dirac Brackets 133
15.4 Example: Electromagnetic Field 135
Further Reading 137
Exercises 137

16 Quantization of Gauge Fields, their Path Integral, and the Photon Propagator 139
16.1 Physical Gauge 139
16.2 Quantization in Physical Gauge 140
16.3 Lorenz Gauge (Covariant) Quantization 142
16.4 Fadeev–Popov Path-Integral Quantization 144
16.5 Photon Propagator 147
Further Reading 148
Exercises 149

17 Generating Functional for Connected Green’s Functions and the Effective Action (1PI
Diagrams) 150
17.1 Generating Functional of Connected Green’s Functions 150
17.2 Effective Action and 1PI Green’s Functions 152
17.2.1 Example: Free Scalar Field Theory in the Discretized Version 152
17.2.2 1PI Green’s Functions 153
17.3 The Connected Two-Point Function 155
17.4 Classical Action as Generating Functional of Tree Diagrams 156
Further Reading 158
Exercises 158
xi Contents

18 Dyson–Schwinger Equations and Ward Identities 160

18.1 Dyson–Schwinger Equations 160
18.1.1 Specific Interaction 161
18.2 Iterating the Dyson–Schwinger Equation 162
18.2.1 Example 162
18.3 Noether’s Theorem 165
18.4 Ward Identities 166
Further Reading 168
Exercises 168

19 Cross-Sections and the S-Matrix 170

19.1 Cross-Sections and Decay Rates 170
19.1.1 Decay Rate 172
19.2 In and Out States, the S-Matrix, and Wavefunctions 172
19.2.1 Wavefunctions 173
19.3 The Reduction Formula (Lehmann, Symanzik,
Zimmermann) 174
19.4 Cross-Sections from Amplitudes M 175
19.4.1 Particle Decay 178
Further Reading 179
Exercises 179

20 The S-Matrix and Feynman Diagrams 180

20.1 Perturbation Theory for S-Matrices: Feynman and Wick 180
20.2 Example: φ 4 Theory in Perturbation Theory and First-Order
Differential Cross-Section 181
20.3 Second-Order Perturbation Theory and Amputation 184
20.4 Feynman Rules for S-Matrices 185
Further Reading 186
Exercises 186

21 The Optical Theorem and the Cutting Rules 188

21.1 The Optical Theorem: Formulation 188
21.2 Unitarity: Optical Theorem at One Loop in λφ 4 Theory 190
21.3 General Case and the Cutkovsky Cutting Rules 193
Further Reading 194
Exercises 194

22∗ Unitarity and the Largest Time Equation 197

22.1 The Largest Time Equation for Scalars: Propagators 197
22.2 Cut Diagrams 199
22.3 The Largest Time Equation for Scalars: Derivation 200
22.4 General Case 201
Further Reading 203
Exercises 203
xii Contents

23 QED: Definition and Feynman Rules; Ward–Takahashi Identities 204

23.1 QED: Definition 204
23.2 QED Path Integral 205
23.3 QED Feynman Rules 206
23.3.1 Feynman Rules for Green’s Functions in Euclidean
Momentum Space 206
23.3.2 Feynman Rules for S-Matrices in Minkowski
Space 206
23.4 Ward–Takahashi Identities 207
23.4.1 Example 1: Photon Propagator 208
23.4.2 Example 2: n-Photon Vertex Function for n ≥ 3 209
23.4.3 Example 3: Original Ward–Takahashi Identity 209
Further Reading 210
Exercises 211

24 Nonrelativistic Processes: Yukawa Potential, Coulomb Potential, and Rutherford

Scattering 212
24.1 Yukawa Potential 212
24.2 Coulomb Potential 214
24.3 Particle–Antiparticle Scattering 215
24.3.1 Yukawa Potential 215
24.3.2 Coulomb Potential 216
24.4 Rutherford Scattering 217
Further Reading 220
Exercises 220

25 e+ e− → ll¯ Unpolarized Cross-Section 221

25.1 e+ e− → ll¯ Unpolarized Cross-Section: Set-up 221
25.2 Gamma Matrix Identities 223
25.3 Cross-Section for Unpolarized Scattering 226
25.4 Center of Mass Frame Cross-Section 227
Further Reading 229
Exercises 229

26 e+ e− → ll¯ Polarized Cross-Section; Crossing Symmetry 230

26.1 e+ e− → ll¯ Polarized Cross-Section 230
26.2 Crossing Symmetry 233
26.3 Mandelstam Variables 235
Further Reading 239
Exercises 239

27 (Unpolarized) Compton Scattering 241

27.1 Compton Scattering: Set-up 241
27.2 Photon Polarization Sums 242
27.3 Cross-Section for Compton Scattering 243
xiii Contents

Further Reading 247

Exercises 247

28∗ The Helicity Spinor Formalism 248

28.1 Helicity Spinor Formalism for Spin 1/2 248
28.2 Helicity Spinor Formalism for Spin 1 253
28.3 Amplitudes with External Spinors 253
Further Reading 254
Exercises 254

29∗ Gluon Amplitudes, the Parke–Taylor Formula, and the BCFW

Construction 256
29.1 Amplitudes with External Gluons and Color-Ordered
Amplitudes 256
29.2 Amplitudes of Given Helicity and Parke–Taylor Formula 258
29.3 Kleiss–Kluijf and BCJ Relations 260
29.4 The BCFW Construction 262
29.5 Application of BCFW: Proof of the Parke–Taylor Formula 264
Further Reading 265
Exercises 265

30 Review of Path Integral and Operator Formalism and the Feynman Diagram
Expansion 266
30.1 Path Integrals, Partition Functions, and Green’s Functions 266
30.1.1 Path Integrals 266
30.1.2 Scalar Field 266
30.2 Canonical Quantization, Operator Formalism, and
Propagators 268
30.3 Wick Theorem, Dyson Formula, and Free Energy in Path-Integral
Formalism 270
30.4 Feynman Rules, Quantum Effective Action, and S-Matrix 271
30.4.1 Feynman Rules in x Space (Euclidean) 271
30.4.2 Simplified Rules 271
30.4.3 Feynman Rules in p Space 271
30.4.4 Simplified Momentum-Space Rules 272
30.4.5 Classical Field 272
30.4.6 Quantum Effective Action 272
30.4.7 S-Matrix 273
30.4.8 Reduction Formula (LSZ) 273
30.5 Fermions 274
30.6 Gauge Fields 275
30.7 Quantum Electrodynamics 276
30.7.1 QED S-Matrix Feynman Rules 276
Further Reading 277
Exercises 277
xiv Contents

II Loops, Renormalization, Quantum Chromodynamics, and Special Topics 279

31 One-Loop Determinants, Vacuum Energy, and Zeta Function Regularization 281
31.1 Vacuum Energy and Casimir Force 281
31.2 General Vacuum Energy and Regularization with Riemann Zeta ζ (−1) 283
31.3 Zeta Function and Heat Kernel Regularization 285
31.3.1 Heat Kernel Regularization 286
31.4 Saddle Point Evaluation and One-Loop Determinants 286
31.4.1 Path Integral Formulation 287
31.4.2 Fermions 288
Further Reading 289
Exercises 289

32 One-Loop Divergences for Scalars; Power Counting 290

32.1 One-Loop UV and IR Divergences 290
32.2 Analytical Continuation of Integrals with Poles 293
32.3 Power Counting and UV Divergences 294
32.4 Power-Counting Renormalizable Theories 296
32.4.1 Examples 298
32.4.2 Divergent φ 4 1PI Diagrams in Various Dimensions 298
Further Reading 299
Exercises 299

33 Regularization, Definitions: Cut-off, Pauli–Villars, Dimensional Regularization, and

General Feynman Parametrization 301
33.1 Cut-off Regularization and Regularizations of Infinite Sums 301
33.1.1 Infinite Sums 302
33.2 Pauli–Villars Regularization 303
33.3 Derivative Regularization 305
33.4 Dimensional Regularization 305
33.5 Feynman Parametrization 307
33.5.1 Feynman Parametrization with Two Propagators 307
33.5.2 General One-Loop Integrals and Feynman Parametrization 309
33.5.3 Alternative Version of the Feynman Parametrization 310
33.6 Dimensionally Continuing Lagrangians 311
Further Reading 312
Exercises 313

34 One-Loop Renormalization for Scalars and Counterterms in Dimensional

Regularization 314
34.1 Divergent Diagrams in φ 4 Theory in D = 4 and its Divergences 315
34.1.1 Divergent Parts 316
34.2 Divergent Diagrams in φ 3 Theory in D = 6 and its Divergences 317
34.2.1 Divergent Parts 319
34.3 Counterterms in φ 4 and φ 3 Theories 319
xv Contents

34.4 Renormalization 321

34.4.1 Examples 323
Further Reading 324
Exercises 324

35 Renormalization Conditions and the Renormalization Group 325

35.1 Renormalization of n-Point Functions 325
35.2 Subtraction Schemes and Normalization Conditions 327
35.2.1 Subtraction Schemes 327
35.2.2 Normalization Conditions 327
35.3 Renormalization Group Equations and Anomalous Dimensions 328
35.3.1 Renormalization Group in MS Scheme 328
35.3.2 φ 4 in Four Dimensions 328
35.4 Beta Function and Running Coupling Constant 331
35.4.1 Possible Behaviors for β(λ) 331
35.5 Perturbative Beta Function in Dimensional Regularization
in MS Scheme 334
35.5.1 Examples 335
35.6 Perturbative Calculation of γm and γd in Dimensional Regularization
in the MS Scheme 335
Further Reading 337
Exercises 337

36 One-Loop Renormalizability in QED 338

36.1 QED Feynman Rules and Power-Counting Renormalizability 338
36.2 Dimensional Regularization of Gamma Matrices 340
36.3 Case 1: Photon Polarization μν (p) 340
36.4 Case 2: Fermion Self-energy (p) 343
36.5 Case 3: Fermions–Photon Vertex μαβ 345
Further Reading 347
Exercises 347

37 Physical Applications of One-Loop Results I: Vacuum Polarization 348

37.1 Systematics of QED Renormalization 348
37.2 Vacuum Polarization 349
37.3 Pair Creation Rate 353
Further Reading 354
Exercises 355

38 Physical Applications of One-Loop Results II: Anomalous Magnetic Moment and

Lamb Shift 356
38.1 Anomalous Magnetic Moment 356
38.2 Lamb Shift 358
Further Reading 362
Exercises 362
xvi Contents

39 Two-Loop Example and Multiloop Generalization 363

39.1 Types of Divergences at Two Loops and Higher 363
39.2 Two Loops in φ 4 in Four Dimensions: Set-up 365
39.3 One-Loop Renormalization 367
39.4 Calculation of Two-Loop Divergences in φ 4 in Four Dimensions and
their Renormalization 368
Further Reading 373
Exercises 373

40 The LSZ Reduction Formula 374

40.1 The LSZ Reduction Formula and Wavefunction Renormalization 374
40.2 Adding Wavepackets 377
40.3 Diagrammatic Interpretation 378
Further Reading 379
Exercises 379

41∗ The Coleman–Weinberg Mechanism for One-Loop Potential 380

41.1 One-Loop Effective Potential in λφ 4 Theory 380
41.2 Renormalization and Coleman–Weinberg Mechanism 381
41.3 Coleman–Weinberg Mechanism in Scalar-QED 382
Further Reading 384
Exercises 384

42 Quantization of Gauge Theories I: Path Integrals and Fadeev–Popov 385

42.1 Review of Yang–Mills Theory and its Coupling to Matter Fields 385
42.2 Fadeev–Popov Procedure in Path Integrals 387
42.2.1 Correlation Functions 387
42.3 Ghost Action 391
Further Reading 393
Exercises 393

43 Quantization of Gauge Theories II: Propagators and Feynman Rules 394

43.1 Propagators and Effective Action 394
43.1.1 Propagators 394
43.1.2 Interactions 394
43.2 Vertices 395
43.3 Feynman Rules 396
43.4 Example of Feynman Diagram Calculation 398
Further Reading 401
Exercises 402

44 One-Loop Renormalizability of Gauge Theories 403

44.1 Divergent Diagrams of Pure Gauge Theory 403
44.2 Counterterms in MS Scheme 407
44.3 Renormalization and Consistency Conditions 408
44.4 Gauge Theory with Fermions 409
xvii Contents

Further Reading 413

Exercises 413

45 Asymptotic Freedom. BRST Symmetry 414

45.1 Asymptotic Freedom 414
45.2 BRST Symmetry 416
45.3 Nilpotency of QB and the Auxiliary Field Formulation 419
Further Reading 421
Exercises 421

46 Lee–Zinn-Justin Identities and the Structure of Divergences (Formal Renormalization

of Gauge Theories) 423
46.1 Lee–Zinn-Justin Identities 423
46.2 Structure of Divergences 425
46.3 Solving the LZJ and Slavov–Taylor Identities 427
46.3.1 Terms Linear in Kμa 427
46.3.2 Terms Linear in A and Not Containing K and L, and Linear in c 428
46.3.3 Terms Quadratic in A and Not Containing K and L 428
46.3.4 Terms Cubic in A and Not Containing K and L 429
Further Reading 430
Exercises 430

47 BRST Quantization 432

47.1 Review of the Dirac Formalism 432
47.1.1 Dirac Brackets 434
47.2 BRST Quantization 434
47.3 Example of BRST Quantization: Electromagnetism in Lorenz Gauge 436
47.4 General Formalism 437
47.4.1 Quantum Action 438
47.5 Example of General Formalism: Pure Yang–Mills 439
47.6 Batalin–Vilkovisky Formalism (Field-Antifield) 441
Further Reading 442
Exercises 442

48 QCD: Definition, Deep Inelastic Scattering 444

48.1 QCD: Definition 444
48.2 Deep Inelastic Scattering 445
48.2.1 Parton Model 446
48.3 Deep Inelastic Neutrino Scattering 449
48.4 Normalization of the Parton Distribution Functions 450
48.5 Hard Scattering Processes in Hadron Collisions 451
Further Reading 452
Exercises 452

49 Parton Evolution and Altarelli–Parisi Equation 453

49.1 QED Process 453
xviii Contents

49.2 Equivalent Photon Approximation 454

49.3 Electron Distribution 456
49.4 Multiple Splittings 457
49.4.1 Boundary Conditions 459
49.4.2 Photon Splitting into Pairs 459
49.5 Evolution Equations for QED 460
49.6 Altarelli–Parisi Equations and Parton Evolution 461
Further Reading 463
Exercises 463

50 The Wilson Loop and the Makeenko–Migdal Loop Equation. Order Parameters; ’t
Hooft Loop 465
50.1 Wilson Loop 465
50.1.1 Abelian Case 465
50.1.2 Nonabelian Case 466
50.2 Wilson Loop and the Quark–Antiquark Potential 467
50.2.1 Area Law and Perimeter Law 468
50.3 The Makeenko–Migdal Loop Equation 469
50.3.1 Path and Area Derivatives 471
50.3.2 Makeenko–Migdal Loop Equation 472
50.4 Order Parameters, ’t Hooft Loop, Polyakov Loop 472
50.4.1 ’t Hooft Loop 473
50.4.2 Polyakov Loop 473
Further Reading 474
Exercises 475

51 IR Divergences in QED 476

51.1 Collinear and Soft IR Divergences 476
51.1.1 Collinear Divergences 476
51.1.2 Soft Divergences 477
51.1.3 IR Divergences in Nonabelian Gauge Theories 478
51.2 QED Vertex IR Divergence 478
51.3 Dimensional Regularization Calculation 482
51.4 Cancellation of IR Divergence by Photon Emission 484
51.5 Summation of IR Divergences and Sudakov Factor 487
Further Reading 489
Exercises 489

52 IR Safety and Renormalization in QCD: General IR-Factorized Form of Amplitudes 490

52.1 QED Vertex: Eikonal Approximation, Exponentiation,
and Factorization of IR Divergences 490
52.2 IR Safety in QCD for Cross-Section for e+ e− → Hadrons and Beta
Function 492
52.2.1 Born Cross-Section for e+ e− → (qq̄) → Hadrons 492
52.3 Factorization and Exponentiation of IR Divergences in Gauge Theories 495
xix Contents

Further Reading 498

Exercises 498

53 Factorization and the Kinoshita–Lee–Nauenberg Theorem 500

53.1 The KLN Theorem 500
53.2 Statement and Proof of Lemma 502
53.3 Factorization and Evolution 504
53.3.1 Factorization Theorem 504
Further Reading 506
Exercises 506

54 Perturbative Anomalies: Chiral and Gauge 508

54.1 Chiral Invariance in Classical and Quantum Theory 508
54.2 Chiral Anomaly 509
54.2.1 Anomaly in d = 2 Euclidean Dimensions 510
54.2.2 Anomaly in d = 4 Dimensions 512
54.3 Properties of the Anomaly 513
54.4 Chiral Anomaly in Nonabelian Gauge Theories 514
54.5 Gauge Anomalies 515
Further Reading 516
Exercises 516

55 Anomalies in Path Integrals: The Fujikawa Method, Consistent vs. Covariant

Anomalies, and Descent Equations 517
55.1 Chiral Basis vs. V–A Basis 517
55.2 Anomaly in the Path Integral: Fujikawa Method 518
55.3 Consistent vs. Covariant Anomaly 521
55.4 Descent Equations 522
Further Reading 524
Exercises 524

56 Physical Applications of Anomalies, ’t Hooft’s UV–IR Anomaly Matching Conditions,

and Anomaly Cancellation 526
56.1 π 0 → γ γ Decay 526
56.2 Nonconservation of Baryon Number in Electroweak Theory 529
56.3 The U(1) Problem 531
56.4 ’t Hooft’s UV–IR Anomaly Matching Conditions 531
56.5 Anomaly Cancellation in General and in the Standard Model 532
56.5.1 The Standard Model 533
Further Reading 535
Exercises 535

57∗ The Froissart Unitarity Bound and the Heisenberg Model 536
57.1 The S-Matrix Program, Analyticity, and Partial Wave Expansions 536
57.2 The Froissart Unitarity Bound 537
57.2.1 Application to Strong Interactions 538
xx Contents

57.3 The Heisenberg Model for Saturation of the Froissart Bound 539
Further Reading 543
Exercises 543

58 The Operator Product Expansion, Renormalization of Composite Operators, and

Anomalous Dimension Matrices 545
58.1 Renormalization of Composite Operators 545
58.2 Anomalous Dimension Matrix 546
58.3 Anomalous Dimension Calculation 547
58.3.1 Tree Level: O(1) 547
58.3.2 One-Loop Level: O(λ) 548
58.4 The Operator Product Expansion 549
58.5 QCD Example 550
Further Reading 552
Exercises 553

59∗ Manipulating Loop Amplitudes: Passarino–Veltman Reduction and Generalized

Unitarity Cut 554
59.1 Passarino–Veltman Reduction of One-Loop Integrals 554
59.2 Box Integrals 557
59.3 Generalized Unitarity Cuts 560
Further Reading 562
Exercises 562

60∗ Analyzing the Result for Amplitudes: Polylogs, Transcendentality, and Symbology 564
60.1 Polylogs in Amplitudes 564
60.2 Maximal and Uniform Transcendentality of Amplitudes 565
60.3 Symbology 568
Further Reading 570
Exercises 570

61∗ Representations and Symmetries for Loop Amplitudes: Amplitudes in Twistor Space,
Dual Conformal Invariance, and Polytope Methods 571
61.1 Twistor Space 571
61.2 Amplitudes in Twistor Space 572
61.2.1 Dual Space and Momentum Twistors 573
61.3 Dual Conformal Invariance 574
61.4 Polytopes and Amplitudes 574
61.5 Leading Singularities of Amplitudes and a Conjecture for Them 578
Further Reading 581
Exercises 581

62 The Wilsonian Effective Action, Effective Field Theory, and Applications 582
62.1 The Wilsonian Effective Action 582
62.1.1 φ 4 Theory in Euclidean Space 582
62.2 Calculation of c ,i 583
xxi Contents

62.3 Effective Field Theory 586

62.3.1 Nonrenormalizable Theories 587
62.3.2 Removing the Cut-off 587
Further Reading 589
Exercises 589

63 Kadanoff Blocking and the Renormalization Group: Connection with Condensed

Matter 590
63.1 Field Theories as Classical Spin Systems 590
63.2 Kadanoff Blocking 593
63.3 Expansion Near a Critical Point 595
63.4 Critical Exponents (Near the Fixed Point) 596
Further Reading 598
Exercises 598

64 Lattice Field Theory 600

64.1 Continuum Limit 600
64.1.1 Gaussian Fixed Point 600
64.2 Beta Function 601
64.3 Lattice Gauge Theory 602
64.4 Lattice Gauge Theory: Continuum Limit 605
64.5 Adding Matter 606
Further Reading 607
Exercises 607

65 The Higgs mechanism 608

65.1 Abelian Case 608
65.2 Abelian Case: Unitary Gauge 610
65.3 Abelian Case: Gauge Symmetry 611
65.4 Nonabelian Case 611
65.4.1 SU(2) Case 613
65.5 Standard Model Higgs: Electroweak SU(2) × U(1) 613
Further Reading 616
Exercises 616

66 Renormalization of Spontaneously Broken Gauge Theories I: The Goldstone Theorem

and Rξ Gauges 618
66.1 The Goldstone Theorem 618
66.2 Rξ Gauges: Abelian Case 620
66.3 Rξ Gauges: Nonabelian Case 623
Further Reading 624
Exercises 624

67 Renormalization of Spontaneously Broken Gauge Theories II: The SU(2)-Higgs Model 625
67.1 The SU(2)-Higgs Model 625
67.2 Quantum Theory and LZJ Identities 627
xxii Contents

67.3 Renormalization 628

Further Reading 630
Exercises 630

68 Pseudo-Goldstone Bosons, Nonlinear Sigma Model, and Chiral Perturbation

Theory 632
68.1 QCD, Chiral Symmetry Breaking, and Goldstone Theorem 632
68.2 Pseudo-Goldstone Bosons, Chiral Perturbation Theory, and Nonlinear
Sigma Model 634
68.3 The SO(N) Vector Model 636
68.4 Physical Processes and Generalizations 639
68.4.1 Generalization 641
68.4.2 Generalization to SU(3) 641
68.5 Heavy Quark Effective Field Theory 641
68.6 Coupling to Nucleons 642
68.7 Mass Terms 643
Further Reading 644
Exercises 644

69∗ The Background Field Method 646

69.1 General Method and Quantum Partition Function 646
69.2 Scalar Field Analysis for Effective Action 648
69.3 Gauge Theory Analysis 650
Further Reading 654
Exercises 654

70∗ Finite-Temperature Quantum Field Theory I: Nonrelativistic (“Manybody”) Case 655

70.1 Review of Thermodynamics of Quantum Systems (Quantum
Statistical Mechanics) 656
70.2 Nonrelativistic QFT at Finite Temperature: “Manybody” Theory 658
70.3 Paranthesis: Condensed Matter Calculations 659
70.4 Free Green’s Function 661
70.5 Perturbation Theory and Dyson Equations 663
70.5.1 Feynman Rules in x Space 664
70.5.2 Feynman Rules in Momentum Space 664
70.5.3 Dyson Equation 665
70.6 Lehmann Representation and Dispersion Relations 667
70.7 Real-Time Formalism 669
70.7.1 Lehmann Representation and Dispersion Relations 670
70.7.2 Relation with Green–Matsubara Functions 671
70.7.3 Free Green–Zubarev Function 672
70.7.4 Correlation Functions and Scattering 672
Further Reading 674
Exercises 674
xxiii Contents

71∗ Finite-Temperature Quantum Field Theory II: Imaginary and Real-Time Formalisms 675
71.1 The Imaginary-Time Formalism 675
71.2 Imaginary-Time Formalism: Propagators 677
71.3 KMS (Kubo–Martin–Schwinger) Relation 678
71.4 Real-Time Formalism 679
71.5 Interpretation of Green’s Functions 681
71.6 Propagators and Field Doubling 682
Further Reading 684
Exercises 685

72∗ Finite-Temperature Quantum Field Theory III: Thermofield Dynamics and

Schwinger–Keldysh “In–In” Formalism for Thermal and Nonequilibrium Situations.
Applications 686
72.1 Thermofield Dynamics 686
72.1.1 Thermal Fermionic Harmonic Oscillator 687
72.1.2 Bosonic Harmonic Oscillator 688
72.2 The Schwinger–Keldysh Formalism at T = 0 689
72.3 Schwinger–Keldysh Formalism at Nonzero T 692
72.4 Application of Thermal Field Theory: Finite-Temperature Effective
Potential 693
Further Reading 696
Exercises 696

References 697
Index 699
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a camp an' geards, an' all dat. Dey's fightenin' Jordan's men ebery
day mos'."
This information was startling, and it took the sentinel, for such he
proved to be, a long time to convince us he was telling the truth. At
length we agreed to the following conditions for accepting his
guidance: One of us was to carry the gun, the two others were to
carry clubs, and he was to pilot us to the camp of the Home Guards.
On the first evidence of his having deceived us, we were to kill him.
To this he assented, and under his leadership we started forward.
Soon we reached a log house, and he went to the door and
knocked. There was considerable delay about opening the door; so
much, that our suspicion was aroused. At length the door was partly
opened, and a woman's face appeared. She recognized our guard
and he briefly informed her who we were. She hardly trusted him,
but after a brief parley we were admitted. We told her frankly who
we were, and she supplied our wants as well as she could from her
own limited resources, at the same time informing us that her
husband was in the house when we arrived, but that he had hastily
taken himself to the brush. We afterwards learned the cause.
We had proceeded but a short distance from the house when we
discovered in the road ahead of us, a mounted picket, dressed in
Confederate grey.
To describe our feelings at the sight, is impossible. My first impulse
was to turn and fly. I grasped my club with fierce energy, with the
mental vow that if that negro had betrayed us into the hands of our
enemies I would send him to his long home, if my life paid the
forfeit. Not a word was spoken until the picket challenged, "Who
goes there?"
"Friends," replied Spencer.
"Advance, friends, and give the countersign."
"We have no countersign," I replied.
"Who are you?"
My voice trembled as I replied, "Escaped Union prisoners."
"All right. Come in."
"Wait a moment. Are you a Union man?"
"I just am that. I belong to the Home Guard."
"Well, who are the Home Guard?"
"Union men, belonging around here. Come along. We will take care
of you."
"All right," we replied, and under his guidance we moved forward.
We soon reached the camp, more properly the rendezvous, of the
command. We found perhaps a dozen men, all armed, in and around
a small but comfortable log house. The guard reported us to one
whom he saluted as Major, who immediately put us through a
thorough questioning. We told him who we were, and the rank and
regiment of each. We showed him our letters, and, among other
things, our compass and map.
After undergoing a rigid examination, we were successful in
convincing our new-found Union men that we were in very truth
Yankees and escaped prisoners, and we were permitted to go where
we pleased, being cautioned, however, that it was highly dangerous
to stray far from camp. Immediately after our examination was
closed, one of the men came up to us and said, "Did you uns stop at
a house back here, this morning?"
"We stopped there, certainly," I replied; "and the woman gave us a
good breakfast. Why do you ask?"
"I only wanted to be sure that you were the ones stopped there.
That was my house. I made tracks out of the back door and took to
the brush, when you went in at the front."
"Why did you do that? Why were you frightened at our approach?"
"Well," said he, "I'll just tell ye. We're mighty scary 'bout strangers
comin' to our houses, jest now. 'Taint more'n a month since one of
Jordan's Band came to the house of my neighbor, not more'n a mile
from heah, an' let on he was a Union man, an' wanted to join the
Home Guards, and his wife sent to the bush an' had her husband
come in. But afore he got clar into the house a dozen of Jordan's
men come out'n the bush, an' they just took an' tied him hand an'
foot, mutilated him in the most horrid manner, an' then, bleeding as
he was, they hung him to a tree right in sight of his own house. I tell
ye, stranger, it stan's a man in hand to look out for himself these
times. If I'd knowed who you was, I wouldn't have run into camp, as
I did."
While we were talking, a little group of men gathered around us,
listening to the conversation. Our looks must have expressed
incredulity. In fact it was hard, soldiers as we were, used to scenes
of blood and brutality upon the battlefield, to believe it possible that
such hellish deeds could have been enacted in a Christian land.
"Reck'n that's a pretty tough yarn to believe, now, ain't it?" said a
tall, gaunt specimen of a North Georgia man. "But I tell you it's true,
every word of it. I seed it with my own eyes. I helped to cut him
down and bury him—and he ain't the only one that's been served
that way."

Among the Georgia Unionists

Looking around, a little later, we saw in the field at a short distance,
three or four men at work digging sweet potatoes—each man with a
musket strapped to his back.
I had read in histories of the early settlement of the Eastern States,
and of pioneering in the West, incidents corresponding in some
respects with this. There was, however, one radical difference
between the cases of our pioneers and the Georgia Unionists. The
former were compelled to defend themselves against the North
American savages, in a war prosecuted without regard to the laws
governing civilized nations; but this was in the interior of Georgia,
one of the older States, in the noon-tide of the nineteenth century.
These men were not warring with savages, but with their fellow men
of the same race, with their neighbors, their former friends and
acquaintances.
Here were about a hundred men banded together for mutual
protection—Union men, who had voted against secession, who had
refused to join in that fratricidal step, and who were in sympathy
with the North in desiring to maintain and preserve the Union. When
conscripted into the Confederate army they fled to the mountains,
and were there hunted like wild beasts, and when pressed like them,
stood at bay. Their wives and little ones had tilled the soil, and
managed to raise enough corn and sweet potatoes to maintain life,
and to send to the hiding places of their husbands and fathers and
brothers, supplies from this meagre store, as occasion required.
To this class were added those who were so unfortunate as to have
been captured—forced into the Southern service by conscription,
and who had subsequently escaped and returned to their homes. So
soon as they were in sufficient numbers to warrant it, they had left
their places of concealment and formed an organization for mutual
protection. They were armed with muskets, carbines, revolvers,
shot-guns—anything that would shoot.
They had made one or two raids on the planters in the lowlands,
known to be prominent Confederates, and had supplied themselves
with provisions. The exigencies of the Southern cause had compelled
that government to put into the field every available man. The
theatre of activity being so far removed from here, however, had, to
a certain extent, protected these mountaineers from attack by any
detachment of the Confederate army.
There was, however, a guerrilla company, known as Jordan's Band,
used by the Confederates as scouts, whose business it was to give
information of the movements of Sherman's forces, which were
located on the railroad. They waylaid foraging parties, bushwhacked
pickets, etc. Well armed and mounted, they outnumbered the Home
Guards nearly two to one. With this band the Home Guards were
constantly fighting. It was a war of extermination between them. No
prisoners were taken by either side. When we arrived in camp they
were momentarily expecting an attack. The men were stationed
where they could overlook the different roads, with orders, if
attacked, to fall back slowly to camp, sending in information to the
commander, Major McCreary, so that he might put his men in the
best possible position to receive the enemy.
The Home Guards were outside any regular military organization,
but were most desirous of entering the United States service. They
were not so anxious for the pay they would then be entitled to draw,
as they were to procure good arms and clothing, and to be entitled
to the protection of the government, as regularly-organized soldiers.
They begged of us to represent their case to our government, and
see if this could not be accomplished. I may as well state right here,
that information concerning their case was promptly filed in the War
Department, but I could never learn that it was acted upon.
With few exceptions, these were rough, unlettered men, without
even the rudiments of an education. But they were generous,
hospitable, brave, and Union men to the core; men who would suffer
privations, and death itself, rather than array themselves in strife
against the Stars and Stripes, the emblem of the country they loved.
All the power of the Confederate government could not compel them
to fight against it. Uneducated though they were, under their
homespun jackets beat hearts pure as gold, and stout as oak.
These were the men to whom Providence had directed our steps.
We were invited into the house, and after eating a good dinner and
enjoying the luxury of a bath—more strictly speaking, a good,
thorough wash from head to foot—we were provided with good
beds. What a treat! Soft, clean beds, for men who for six months
had thought a blanket a luxury, and who for the last twenty days
had turned day into night and slept in the woods, with no kindly
covering but the sky—depending upon the rays of the sun for
warmth; all the time with a sense of danger hovering over us that
would only permit brief and troubled rest, liable to be broken should
a leaf fall, or a twig snap. Throwing ourselves into bed, we were
soon lost in quiet, refreshing sleep, from which we did not awaken
until long after daylight the next morning. We now felt like new men,
and after a hearty breakfast were eager to take the road as soon as
circumstances should permit, certainly by the time darkness should
again make it prudent.
Our new friends would not for a moment listen to this proposition.
We must stay and rest, they said, and when fit to travel some of
them would accompany us to Sherman's lines. The roads were
scouted during the night by Jordan's men, and the chances were
two to one in favor of our being recaptured. They could not go with
us that night, and perhaps not the next, because they were
expecting an attack. So soon as the emergency had passed, and it
was safe to proceed, they promised to take us on our way.
It was hard to act upon this prudent advice. Our patience was sorely
tried. Only forty miles separated us from our lines, and from
telegraphic communication with wife and home. One night or two at
most, would finish the journey. It was hard to wait, but discretion
and the urgent advice of friends prevailed. We consented to remain,
provided they would furnish us with any kind of arms, and permit us
temporarily to volunteer in the Home Guards, and in case of a fight
to participate in it. To this proposition they gave a cordial assent. I
was furnished with a revolver, and Spencer and Hatcher with other
weapons.
That night, word was brought in that some of Jordan's men had
been on a certain road, and the probabilities were that we should be
attacked before morning. The Major immediately took the necessary
steps to put his force in the best possible position for defense. His
plan was to ambush the enemy. Two mounted scouts were sent out,
with orders to ascertain the Confederate strength, and then, after
showing themselves, to fall back and if possible to draw them into
our trap. We waited patiently for several hours, and at length the
scouts returned. They reported having seen the enemy, who
prudently refused to follow them in. It being apparent that no attack
would be made that night, the usual precaution of posting pickets
was taken, and all returned to camp.
The next morning, one of the men asked to see "that little thing" I
showed the Major when I came into camp. It was some time before
I could make out what he meant. I finally asked him if it was the
compass; and he reck'ned it was. I took it out of my pocket and
showed it to him. Finding him ignorant of its uses, I explained them
as well as I was able, saying among other things that the needle
always pointed to the north, unless attracted by some more powerful
magnet. I took a piece of iron, and caused the needle to traverse by
attraction. Some of the questions he asked, would have puzzled old
Doctor Benjamin Franklin to answer. It is hard to believe that at this
age of the world, in a civilized country, a man could be found so
utterly ignorant of the uses of a compass.
Here could be seen the difference between educated freedom at the
North, and uneducated slavery in the South. Without any system of
free schools, the poor whites were unable to procure the means to
educate their children. It was not to the interests of the
slaveholders, the aristocracy of the South, to educate the masses.
Slavery naturally created an aristocracy, to maintain which it was
necessary to keep both negroes and poor whites in ignorance. There
were no common interests between the rich and the poor whites, to
induce the former to tax themselves to educate their neighbors'
children. The result was, that while the children of the aristocrats
were, generally, educated above the common standard at the North,
the masses were left in deplorable ignorance.
By this time we were becoming impatient to resume our journey,
and urged our friends, with all the eloquence of which we were
possessed, to make the attempt to reach our lines that night. But
the Major, although plainly desirous of accommodating us, was firmly
convinced that the attempt could not be made with safety, and
wisely, no doubt, overruled us. Much against our inclination, we
abided by his decision, and concluded to remain another night.
During the course of the day, we received an invitation to attend a
wedding.

A Mountain Wedding
One of the members of the Home Guards was a reckless young
fellow, a deserter from an Ohio regiment. Wild, yet generous-
hearted, he had, he said, been grossly abused by his Captain, and
had therefore left his command and joined the Home Guards. In less
than a month, he had succeeded in captivating one of Jasper's
fairest maidens, and we were invited to witness the ceremony that
should make the twain one flesh.
We more than suspected that the desire to witness this ceremony
had influenced, if not the Major, at least a large proportion of his
men, to delay our journey. We put the best face on the matter,
however, and inasmuch as we were compelled to wait, decided to
attend.
Just before the time arrived for the invited guests to assemble,
Major McCreary made a detail of a sufficient number of his
command to secure us from surprise, and posted them upon all the
approaches to the place; the balance attended the wedding in a
body, taking with them their arms and equipments.
Like a majority of the homes of Georgia mountaineers, the house in
which the ceremony was to be performed was about sixteen feet
square, and constructed of logs. A large fireplace, extending nearly
across one end of the building, was piled with wood that crackled
and roared as the ruddy blaze encircled and devoured it. It sent
back into the room a delightful glow, lighting up the dusky nooks
and corners of the old cabin, now flickering up to the ceiling and
again dying away, leaving the inmates in the dancing shadows. A
bed occupied the opposite side of the room. Opposite the only
entrance was one small window. The other furniture consisted solely
of a rough pine table and a few chairs.
The assembled company composed a group that if faithfully drawn
would insure to any artist the reputation of a first-class caricaturist.
The guests, numbering between thirty and forty persons of both
sexes, filled the room to overflowing. Immediately in front of the
fireplace stood the bride and groom, hand in hand.
The costume of the bride was not such as Paris would have
prescribed for such an occasion. Durability and comfort rather than a
desire for artistic effect, had evidently been the ruling considerations
in its selection. The material was calico, bright colors predominating,
and it was made up without any of the furbelows and jimcracks
called "trimmings." No unsightly hoops (then everywhere in vogue)
concealed the outlines of the girl's well-developed form. Upon her
feet were worn good, substantial leather shoes and woolen
stockings. Her "waterfall" was made up of her own luxurious hair,
held in place by a horn comb. No ornament of any kind or
description, not even a sprig or flower, was permitted to relieve the
chaste simplicity of her costume. Standing there by the side of her
chosen husband, she looked substantial and durable, rather than
beautiful.
The groom, resplendent in all the glories of a white shirt and clean
homespun jacket and trousers, seemed to be as happy as is often
permitted to mortals.
Grouped around the room, in various grotesque attitudes, were the
members of the Home Guards. Some were standing, resting their
chins upon hands folded across the muzzles of their muskets; others
were standing in the position of a soldier at ordered arms; others
were squatted on the floor, with their guns lying across their laps.
Sitting on the bed and on the few chairs, were some of the women,
while others mingled with the soldiers, quite regardless of
appearances.
Everything being in readiness, the clergyman took his place, and in a
few words pronounced the marriage ceremony—which, whether
performed in palace or hovel, is so fraught with good or ill, to both
the parties concerned.
For a moment after he had concluded, all were silent. The grave
deportment of the minister combined with the peculiar
circumstances attending upon the marriage, acted like a spell upon
the audience, compelling even the most reckless to yield to its
influence. The silence was rudely broken by the young husband,
who, taking his bride by the chin, by this means getting her face in
position, gave her a rousing smack on the mouth, exclaiming: "Well,
Mary, how do you like gitt'n' married?"
"I like it fust rate. I wouldn't mind gitt'n' married every day," was her
reply.
The scene that followed beggars description—such pulling and
hauling and kissing of the bride; such kissing of everybody who
would submit to being kissed, and of some who wouldn't; such
screaming and laughing; such jostling and mixing, surely never were
seen before.
For an hour or more the carnival continued. At length they were
tired out by their wild play and boisterous mirth. Quiet was restored.
Songs were called for. Spencer, a good singer, gave them the song,
"Who will care for mother now?" I followed with "Old Irish
Gentleman" in my best style, my music resembling the notes of a jay
bird alternated with those of a wild goose, with an occasional note
resembling the filing of a saw. The songs, however, were received
with applause about equally divided, although I heard a pretty
widow remark that she thought Spencer the better singer, and I
could not dispute her taste.
When the bride remarked that "It must be gitt'n' moughty late, hard
on to one o'clock," the company dispersed; some to their homes,
others to the picket line to relieve the guard and learn the signs of
the night. Spencer, Hatcher, and I betook ourselves to the
headquarters of the Guards, where we were soon soundly sleeping.
The next morning the Major despatched men in every direction to
ascertain the whereabouts and movements of Jordan's men. We
were urgent in our request to start that night.
"Wait until I hear from my men," he said. "I sha'n't run the risk of
having you recaptured, nor of unnecessarily sacrificing my men. I
am just as anxious as you are to have you reach your lines in safety.
We are in need of ammunition and supplies, and you can assist us in
getting them. You can also establish the fact that we are Union men,
and that we can be trusted. I want to accompany you myself, and
we will start just as soon as it is safe to do so; but you must wait
until that time comes. We have repeatedly tried to make your people
understand our position, but they do not seem to trust us."
There was altogether too much good sense in the Major's reasoning
to gainsay it, and we perforce submitted with the best grace
possible.

Diplomacy
In the course of the day, two members of Jordan's Band came into
camp under flag of truce. Their ostensible object was to enter into a
compact with the Home Guards, by the terms of which the private
property of each should be respected. Major McCreary evinced good
diplomatic ability in the conduct of the negotiation. He insisted upon
the restitution of property taken by Jordan's men prior to the
formation of the Home Guards. He detailed with great clearness and
force the manner in which the houses of his men had been
plundered by the guerrillas; how they had not only appropriated
articles of value, but had destroyed furniture and clothing, with no
other motive than that of revenge.
"When you restore to us the full value of what you have destroyed,"
he said, "less the value of what we have taken from you, then we
will enter into an agreement to respect private property."
He greatly exaggerated his numerical strength, and I think was
successful in impressing upon the minds of the envoys that in
position and men he was far stronger than he really was. He also
succeeded in worming out of them information of the utmost
importance as to the location of the Band at that time.

A Start for Our Lines

When the interview was ended, the Major informed us that the news
he had obtained, if substantiated by the scouts when they came in,
would enable us to start that night. A little later we were told that
the attempt would be made.
Ten men, under the command of the Major, were selected as an
escort, and we started out in a state of high exhilaration. Our horses
were fair roadsters, we were armed; and judging by our feeling at
that moment, nothing less than a battalion would have seemed a
formidable obstacle in our path. In fact, I believe some of us would
have rather enjoyed the prospect of a skirmish that night. The Major
had occasion to check our rather noisy demonstrations more than
once during the first hour of our ride. The night was intensely dark.
The rain came down steadily, and as our clothes became saturated,
our exuberant spirits toned down to the level of reasonable men.
Once more, at a distance of about four miles from our starting point,
we came to the outpost of a guard. He reported that just before
night he had discovered a man skulking in the bushes beyond.
The Major immediately detailed one of his men, with orders to
reconnoitre a certain by-road, at a point known to be a rendezvous
for Jordan's men when they were in that vicinity, and to report to us
a few miles farther on. He then informed us that if we were attacked
at all, it would be near the point where he had ordered his man to
report.
The scout put spurs to his horse and in an instant was lost to view in
the darkness. It was curious how suddenly our desire for a fight
evaporated, when the probability arose that our wishes might be
speedily gratified; especially when the chances were so decidedly in
favor of an enemy lying in ambush, from which we should be
compelled to dislodge him.
Quietly and unostentatiously the Major communicated his plans to
his men, and everything being in readiness we resumed our march.
When within a mile of the point where the scout had been ordered
to join us, we heard a crackling and snapping in the brush at the
side of the road. We halted and breathlessly listened.
Somebody on horseback was coming our way. If it was the scout, all
was right; if not, it was certain the enemy was on the road. Silently
we sat on our horses and listened. At length the Major challenged,
"Who comes there?"
No answer. Again the Major challenged. I cocked my revolver, and
the click-click running along our line sounded ominous.
"Halloo, boys, is that you?" came out of the brush.
We recognized the voice in a moment; it was the scout's.
"Why didn't you answer when I challenged?" demanded the Major.
"I reck'ned I'd just wait and see who you was, fust," was the cool
reply.
"You ran a mighty narrow chance of being fired into."
"Yes, I calc'lated on that; but I thought I'd take the risk. It's mighty
onsartain 'bout hitt'n' a feller in the brush, dark as it is now; and I'd
ruther be shot at than fool along into Jordan's hands."
"I say," said Spencer to me, sotto voce, "that fellow is a cool one!"
And so he was. Think of a man's calmly calculating, rather than
make a mistake and thereby raising a false alarm, the chances of a
dozen shots being fired at him at a distance not exceeding ten rods
—from a point he all the while intended to advance toward, until
near enough to recognize voices. He was a specimen of the kind of
men that made up the Home Guards.
The scout's report was favorable. He thought there had been no
enemy around the old rendezvous for several days. This intelligence
corresponded with that already obtained by the Major. Coupled with
the state of the weather, it seemed nearly certain that we should
have only the elements to contend with that night. Again we were
off.
"We must push ahead, now, at double quick. We have no time to
lose," said the Major.
Putting our horses into a gallop, we rushed into the darkness.
Splashing through the mud, now fording creeks, now floundering
through quagmires, our little band flitted like spectres. Every hour
lessened the distance between us and the boys in blue. Daylight
would find us within sight of the stars and stripes, if no misfortune
overtook us. Our horses were reeking with perspiration. Up hill and
down, on and on we galloped. At last a house appeared in sight.
"Halt! Dismount!"
"What is this, Major?" I asked.
"The house of a friend," was the reply. "We are within five miles of
your picket lines."
Could it be possible that only five miles divided us from our old
comrades—from the "boys in blue," from telegraphic communication
with wife and children? Only five miles to liberty? We could hardly
restrain our feelings within reasonable bounds. My heart fluttered
and my limbs shook with excitement. My voice trembled so that I
could scarcely articulate.
"Why do you halt?" I querulously asked the Major.
"We must wait till daylight. It is not safe to approach the picket line
at night."
"But, Major, is there not another house nearer the line? Must we
stop here? Would it not be safer to get as near the line as possible?
Is there not a possibility that we may be attacked even here?"
I poured these questions out without giving him a chance to reply. It
seemed as if I could not stop.
"It seems like you were gitt'n' mighty uneasy just now. I reckon we'll
have to stop a time, anyhow. You might as well come in and make
yourselves comfortable. We will get warmed up, have something to
eat, let the horses blow awhile, and then perhaps we will go on to
the Widow H——'s. She lives right close to the line, but she's a Reb
clean through, and I don't like to trust her any longer than is
necessary."
The Major's cool, matter-of-fact way of disposing of the matter,
made me ashamed of my excitement and petulance. I felt the more
chagrined at the display of my feelings, because Hatcher and
Spencer had exhibited so much more coolness and self-restraint, and
I determined that thereafter I should act with more discretion. So,
hiding my impatience as best I could, I dismounted and followed my
companions into the house. We found the family asleep, but a good
fire burning on the capacious hearth was a welcome sight to the
drenched and shivering troopers.
The noisy summons of the Major aroused the sleeping inmates.
When they found who we were that visited them at such an hour,
they extended to us a hearty welcome. Fresh wood was piled upon
the fire, around which we gathered in a steaming semicircle. The
Major took our host aside. A few brief questions were asked and
answered.
"It's all right," he said as he joined us. "The whelps have been
around, but left yesterday. I reckon we'll stop awhile, get a bite to
eat, and then shove on to Widow H——'s."
It was yet two hours or more to daylight, and our friends could not
be blamed if they preferred their present comfortable quarters
before the fire, to muddy roads, darkness, and pelting rain. As for
myself and two companions, we were the very pictures of
suppressed impatience. When our hospitable host passed around
some food and home-made coffee, we were far too excited to
partake. The sight of Major McCreary and his men, coolly stowing
away the bread and coffee, fairly made me grate my teeth with
impatience.
At length the Major, taking pity upon us, rather than following his
own better judgment, as I am firmly convinced, gave the order to
remount. We were the first to obey.
The night was still very disagreeable. The rain continued to come
down with pitiless violence, accompanied by a cold northeast wind,
which, combined with the pitchy darkness, rendered traveling the
reverse of pleasant. We were, however, too much excited with the
prospect to mind the unpleasant state of the weather. We were living
on anticipation. Our brilliant hopes overshadowed the uncomfortable
present to such an extent that even now I look back to that night's
ride as one of the most delightful episodes of a not altogether
uneventful life.
An hour's ride brought us to the house of Widow H——, within half
of a mile of our picket line. It was still very dark, and altogether
unsafe to attempt to approach the pickets. We must wait for
daylight. So, when the order to dismount was given, we acquiesced
with the best grace possible.
Fastening our horses, we approached the house. A resounding rat-
tat-tat brought the widow to the door. Finding the party headed by
the leader of the Home Guards, she seemed the reverse of pleased,
and was not inclined to accede to our moderate demands for shelter
until morning; but finally, with a repugnance she took no pains to
conceal, she permitted us to enter. We soon built up a good fire, and
under the influence of its cheering warmth forgot the inhospitable
conduct of our hostess. With many a jest and story we beguiled the
tedious hour till daylight.

Among Comrades
At the earliest dawn we were again on the road. Ahead of us, upon
either hand, as far as the eye could reach, could be seen the blue
smoke of the picket fires. We were traveling leisurely. I was
conversing with Spencer; when suddenly, upon an elevation not ten
rods from us, appeared a soldier dressed in blue, who in short, crisp
tones commanded, "Halt! Who comes there?"
The Major answered, "Friends!"
"Halt, friends! Advance one, without arms, and give the
countersign."
The Major dismounted and advanced. A few moments' conversation
took place between him and the soldier, which the distance
prevented us from hearing. We soon after heard the order given by
the outpost guard to fall in, and then came the order, "Dismount!
Advance, friends!"
Dismounting, we advanced, leading our horses. Upon reaching the
outpost guard I thought I recognized a familiar face. "What regiment
do you belong to?" I asked.
"The First Wisconsin Cavalry," was the reply.
"Give us your hand, old fellow!" I exclaimed, with the tears running
down my cheeks. "Let me hug you. Hurrah, boys! Do you hear that?
First Wisconsin Cavalrymen!"
Hatcher and Spencer were dancing about, crying and laughing. In
fact, we were all of us fairly crazed with joy. Our new friends did not
seem at all proud of their demonstrative guests. In truth, they rather
drew back from our demonstrations of affection.
"Who are you, anyhow?" one of them sourly asked.
"Escaped prisoners," we replied.
"Where did you make your escape?"
"Near Charleston."
"You don't pretend to say that you have come all the way from
Charleston, right through the Reb country?"
"Yes, we do pretend that very thing."
"Well, it may be so, but I don't care about being hugged"—glancing
towards us with a look expressive of mingled incredulity and disgust.
This rebuff had the effect to cool us down a bit, and when we came
to look ourselves over, we could but confess that so far as personal
appearance was concerned we were nothing to boast of. We were
unshaven and unshorn, our rags barely sufficient for decency,
barefooted or nearly so, bareheaded, and most miserably dirty. No
wonder a well-clad Union soldier resented our familiarity!
We were disarmed, placed under charge of the guard, and marched
to the headquarters of the Brigade, then commanded by Colonel
Lampson, of an Indiana regiment.
After some delay we were ushered into the presence of the Colonel.
He listened attentively to us, reducing each of our statements to
writing. After he had finished, he sat a few moments in meditation.
"You have got this thing pretty well fixed up," he finally said.
"Hatcher and Spencer each belong to regiments now mustered out
of service; and you," turning to me, "belong to the Army of the
Potomac. We have been deceived too often by you fellows."
"Who, in God's name, do you take us to be?" I asked.
"Starved-out bushwhackers or spies, or perhaps both," he answered
curtly. "Orderly, call the officer of the guard."
"Colonel, the First Wisconsin Cavalry is camped here, is it not?" I
asked.
"Yes. Do you know any of the members of that regiment?"
"I hardly know. Where is Colonel La Grange?"
"La Grange is in Wisconsin. Did you know him?"
"I did. We were in prison together. Where is Captain Clinton?"
"Captain Clinton is here. Orderly, go and say to Captain Clinton that I
desire him to report to me in person, immediately."
Clinton had been engaged with me in our tunneling enterprise at
Macon, and was one of my most intimate friends. He had been
exchanged but a short time before we left Charleston.
In a few moments I heard him speak to the Orderly in an excited
voice: "Get out of the way and let me in! I'll bet it's Captain Kellogg!"
Almost at the same moment he opened the door. I stood facing him
as he entered.
"I told you it was him! It's Kellogg! It's Kellogg!"
By this time we were in each other's arms, both of us sobbing like
children. Then leaving me, he first caught Spencer and then Hatcher.
"There—there!" broke in Colonel Lampson; "you appear to know
these men."
"Know them? I should rather think I did. Know them? Didn't Kellogg
and I dig tunnels together? Didn't we starve together in Rebel
prisons? I should rather think I do know them!"
"Well, then, take them and take care of them," said the old Colonel,
swallowing hard and trying to keep his eyes from overflowing. "I beg
your pardon, gentlemen," he said, turning to us; "but we have been
imposed upon so often, and"—here his voice became thick and
husky. Turning savagely to Clinton, he exclaimed: "Take them, I tell
you, and, d—— you! feed them well, and see that they have some
decent clothes. God bless my soul! I—I like to have sent them to the
guard house!"
Under the guidance of Captain Clinton, we left the quarters of the
Colonel, men once more.

"Out of the jaws of death,

Out of the gates of Hell."

Our first care was for our true friends, the Home Guards. We
represented to General McCook, commanding the division, the facts
of their case, and before leaving Calhoun had the satisfaction of
seeing them on their road back to Jasper, with a government wagon
loaded with commissary and quartermaster's stores—clothing, arms,
and ammunition—escorted by a squad of cavalry. What became of
them afterwards, we were never able definitely to ascertain. Spencer
informed me some time since, that the Confederates, shortly
afterward, came upon them in force and that the most of them were
killed. But I most sincerely hope that his information may not have
been reliable, and that they are living in peace in the homes they so
gallantly defended.
The Home Guards taken care of, the telegraph was brought into
requisition, and messages to our homes and friends were soon
flashing along the wires.
Then the First Wisconsin Cavalry took possession of us. We were
invited into the quarters of Major Henry Harnden. We went in dirty,
ragged, and barefooted; we came out, a half hour later, once more
clad in the noble livery of the United States army. We were supplied
with every necessary in their power to grant us, money not
excepted. One day only, we remained with our hospitable
entertainers, and then took the first train for Chattanooga.
 The Mystery Solved
Only one thing marred our perfect happiness—the mysterious
disappearance of Vliet and Gough. Had they been with us, our cup
of happiness would have been indeed full. What their fate had been,
we could only conjecture. It seemed certain that they had not
reached our lines; if they had, the newspapers would surely have
published the tidings. In imagination we could see them toiling along
on their weary way, without compass or map; or perhaps
recaptured, and again the inmates of a prison pen, all their toils and
struggles for freedom in vain.
We arrived in Chattanooga about dark, and were compelled to lay
over until morning, before taking the cars for Nashville. There were
two hotels in the place, both of which were crowded with guests. We
found a place on the bar-room floor of one, on which to spread our
blankets, and were soon soundly sleeping.
Early in the morning a soldier came into our hotel, and commenced
to tell of two escaped prisoners who had arrived the evening before,
and who were stopping at the other hotel.
We listened to him with bated breath; then we started thither on a
run. I am sure that the bystanders must have thought us either
intoxicated or crazy. Upon reaching the hotel we forced our way
through the crowd that filled the office and bar room, until we
reached the counter.
"Where are they?" I pantingly asked.
"Where are who?" asked the landlord.
"The escaped prisoners—the two men that came last night."
"There's a good many came last night. How do you suppose I know
which two men you mean?"
"The men we want are escaped prisoners of war—came in last night
with a picket guard."
"Oh, yes. Now I know who you mean. Here, Jake, show these
gentlemen up to No. 19."
We followed the waiter up to the room. The door opened in answer
to our rap, and—Glory Hallelujah! there were Gough and Vliet! To
describe the scene is simply impossible. I never was so happy
before, and I never expect to be again.
When we had become calm enough to talk, the mystery of our
separation was solved. At the time we halted in the brush to
investigate the noise made by the hog, Vliet, as the reader will
recollect, was followed by Hatcher. It so happened that Hatcher
stopped near a white stump. When Hatcher started on, Vliet mistook
the white stump for him, and thus did not notice our forward
movement or follow us.
After a considerable time, while he waited in silence, he discovered
his mistake. The two then started after us, as nearly as they could
guess at the direction we had taken, and unfortunately missed us.
When we went back to look for them, we must have passed each
other in the brush. They had taken a more northerly direction than
we followed, and reached our lines at Chattanooga one day after our
arrival at Calhoun.
All the members of our party were together once more. Our
desperate attempt had been successful. We had traversed over three
hundred miles in the heart of the South; pierced the Confederate
egg, from shell to shell. Our trials were over, and we were on our
way home.

Again in the Field

Receiving orders to that effect, I proceeded at once to my home in
Wisconsin, made a short visit there, and went thence to Madison.
There I obtained an order from the War Department assigning
enough drafted men to fill our regiment to the maximum, and with
them proceeded to the field, then lying on the Jerusalem Plank
Road, near City Point. Here I found many changes. The regiment
was commanded by Major Kerr, who was a Lieutenant when I left.
Nearly every officer on duty when I left the regiment the previous
May, was either promoted, killed, or mustered out. It seemed
lonesome.
I presided that night at dress parade. When it was dismissed, there
were many anxious inquiries by the men, who wanted to know who
"that white-headed old fellow" was, that was commanding "our
regiment?" Six months of Southern prison life had turned my head
white, and reduced my weight from a hundred-and-seventy-five to a
hundred-and-fifteen pounds.
In the following February (1865), General Bragg having been
ordered to Washington with a portion of his command, the balance
of the Iron Brigade was reorganized by adding to the Sixth and
Seventh Wisconsin an independent battalion of the Second
Wisconsin, and the Ninety-first New York Heavy Artillery, under
command of Colonel Tarbell; the brigade thus numbering about
thirty-five hundred men. I was assigned to its command, and had
the satisfaction of participating in the last campaign, witnessing the
final ending of the War of the Rebellion, at Appomattox, on the ninth
of April, 1865. Among the troops laying down arms at this surrender,
was the Thirteenth Georgia, the same regiment that had captured
me on the fifth day of May, 1864.

A Belated Report
During my absence from the army, General Cutler had again been
wounded, and placed in command of a recruiting camp in Michigan.
I did not have the pleasure of meeting him again until the war was
over. Happening, one day, to be in the office of General Lucius
Fairchild, then Secretary of State, I found that the latter was
temporarily absent in the Governor's office. When he returned and
saw me, he seemed somewhat excited, and told me that there was a
man in the executive office, inquiring for me.
The reader will recollect that the last order I received from General
Cutler was, "Take plenty of orderlies and report frequently."
On entering the Governor's office, I saw General Cutler, who
advanced toward me with his hand extended and eyes suspiciously
moist. He tried to speak. His usually stern face became more stern,
his chin quivered, he grasped my hand more firmly. At length he
blurted out: "You've been a terrible long time reporting!"
In which opinion I have no doubt the reader will share, applying it to
the long story now happily ended.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CAPTURE AND
ESCAPE: A NARRATIVE OF ARMY AND PRISON LIFE ***

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