POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY

OF THE PHILIPPINES
(Electronics Engineering Department)
(College of Engineering)
(Sta. Mesa Campus)

ECEN 101
Basic Electronics 1

Engr. Myrna A. Cabrera, MSE, PECE

Engr. Roel D. Cabrera
0 Engr. Remegio C. Rios
 BASIC ELECTRONICS 1
(ECEN 101)

Engr. Myrna A. Cabrera, MSE, PECE

Engr. Roel D. Cabrera
Engr. Remegio C. Rios

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this learning module may be

reproduced, used in any form, or by any means graphic, electronic, or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or information storage and
retrieval system without written permission from the authors and the
University.

Published and distributed by:

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

Campus: PUP A. Mabini Campus, Anonas Street, Sta. Mesa, Manila 1016
Website: www.pup.edu.ph
Email: [email protected]
Direct Line: 5335-1730 | Trunk Line: 5335-1787 or 5335-1777 local 201

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 The VMPGO

(This part is dedicated to the statement of the Vision, Mission, and Philosophy of the University,
the Goals of the College/Branch or Satellite Campus, and the Description and Objectives of the
Program where the instructional materials are proposed and evaluated.)

VISION
A leading comprehensive polytechnic university in Asia.
MISSION
Advance an inclusive, equitable, and globally relevant polytechnic education
towards national development.

STRATEGIC GOALS
Pillar 1: Teaching and Learning
• SG 1: Innovative Curricula and Instruction
• SG 2: Empowered, Expert, and Productive Faculty Members
• SG 3: Holistic Student Development
Pillar 2: Research and Extension
• SG 4: Intensified Research Innovation, Dissemination, and Utilization
• SG 5: Strengthened Sustainable and Impactful Extension Program
• SG 6: Expanded Research and Extension Networks with Local, National, and
International Partners

Pillar 3: Internal Governance

• SG 7: Transformational University Leadership
• SG 8: Judicious and Ethical Stewardship of Physical and Financial Resources
• SG 9: Effective and Efficient Human Resource Management
• SG 10: Excellent Citizens/Client Satisfaction
• SG11: Smart Campuses

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SHARED VALUES AND PRINCIPLES
1. Integrity and Accountability
2. Nationalism
3. Sense of Service
4. Passion for Learning and Innovation
5. Inclusivity
6. Respect for Human Rights and the Environment
7. Excellence
8. Democracy

GOALS OF THE COLLEGE/CAMPUS

1. Provide quality education through instruction, advanced research, and extension
services.
2. Produce world-class professionals as potential industry leaders and job
providers.
3. Develop and produce facilities using adapted technology and indigenous
materials.
4. Maintain, upgrade, or improve facilities through the applications of engineering
technology.

PROGRAM DESCRIPTION
Electronics is the science dealing with the development and application of devices
and systems involving the flow of electrons or other carriers of electric charge, in a
vacuum, in gaseous media, in plasma, in semiconductors, in solid-state and/or in similar
devices, including, but not limited to, applications involving optical, electromagnetic and
other energy forms when transduced or converted into electronic signals.

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COURSE DESCRIPTION
[Focus] This introductory course includes basic electrical and electronic
principles, the types and behavior of passive components such as resistor, capacitor
and inductor. Later active device called diode will be included. [Output] Experiments
on series, parallel and combination circuits will apply the principles of Ohm’s Law, Watt’s
Law and Kirchhoff’s Law. At the end of the semester, the students will design and build
a power supply circuit. [Modality] The course is delivered through a combination of
strategically designed face-to-face and online (synchronous and asynchronous)
sessions.

INSTITUTIONAL LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

As a polytechnic state university, PUP shall develop its students to possess:
1. Critical and Creative Thinking. Graduates use their rational and reflective thinking
as well as innovative abilities to life situations in order to push boundaries, realize
possibilities, and deepen their interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, and/or
transdisciplinary understanding of the world.
2. Effective Communication. Graduates apply the four macro skills in communication
(reading, writing, listening, and speaking), through conventional and digital means,
and are able to use these skills in solving problems, making decisions, and
articulating thoughts when engaging with people in various circumstances.
3. Strong Service Orientation. Graduates exemplify strong commitment to service
excellence for the people, the clientele, industry, and other sectors.
4. Adept and Responsible Use or Development of Technology. Graduates
demonstrate optimized and responsible use of state-of-the-art technologies of their
profession. They possess digital learning abilities, including technical, numerical,
and/or technopreneurial skills.
5. Passion for Lifelong Learning. Graduates perform and function in society by taking
responsibility in their quest for further improvement through lifelong learning.
6. Leadership and Organizational Skills. Graduates assume leadership roles and
become leading professionals in their respective disciplines by equipping them with
appropriate organizational skills.

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7. Personal and Professional Ethics. Graduates’ manifest integrity and adherence to
moral and ethical principles in their personal and professional circumstances.
8. Resilience and Agility. Graduates demonstrate flexibility and the growth mindset to
adapt and thrive in the volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous (VUCA)
environment.
9. National and Global Responsiveness. Graduates exhibit a deep sense of
nationalism as it complements the need to live as part of the global community where
diversity is respected. They promote and fulfill various advocacies for human and
social development.

PROGRAM LEARNING OUTCOMES (PLOS)

Based on CMO No. 101 Series of 20217
It is expected that by the time of graduation, the students of the BSECE program shall
have the ability to:
a. apply knowledge of mathematics and science to identify and solve complex
electronics engineering problems using modern and state-of-the-art technologies
and applications critically and creatively.
b. facilitate experiments using the latest applications and modern tools to
methodically device useful data analysis and interpretations.
c. design a system, component, or process to meet desired needs within realistic
constraints such as economic, environmental, social, and political, ethical, health
and safety, manufacturability, and sustainability in accordance with standards.
d. display effective leadership and organizational skills in multidisciplinary and
multicultural teams.
e. identify, formulate, and solve engineering problems.
f. apply professional and ethical responsibility by implementing the Philippine Code
and other laws and codes in design projects across all specialized and allied
fields
g. communicate effectively while engaging in activities with the engineering
community and with society at large.
h. identify the impact of electronics engineering solutions in a global, economic,
environmental, and societal context by linking the national and global
development advocacies.

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 i. recognize the need and engage in continuous and life-long learning through
trainings and seminars.
j. apply knowledge of contemporary issue, vitally those involving the profession
k. use techniques, skills, and modern engineering tools necessary for engineering
practice
l. apply knowledge of engineering and management principles as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environment
m. understand at least one specialized field of electronics engineering practice

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES (CLOS).

1. Demonstrate the key ideas of basic electronic components and circuits.
2. Design and troubleshoot basic electronic circuits.

Preface

Basic Electronics 1 is composed of the foundation knowledge needed to analyze and

operate an electronic circuit. The module starts with the basic electrical principles and
followed by the passive devices – resistors, capacitors and inductors. This includes the
characteristics and common troubles of the devices which are necessary in identifying
the troubles in the circuits.
Forming different types of materials are also included. It also compares the resistance
and conductance of the materials. The next topics explained the difference between a
passive and active device. Same as the passive devices, the characteristics and how the
active devices works are also provided. Doping process is also given to understand how
a P and N type materials are formed.
The analysis of the circuits’ operation is not only done by mathematical solutions but
also by using software and by doing experiments. The last student outcomes expected
from the student is to be able to design a simple power supply circuit. Using all the
technical knowledge and skills they learned in the soldering and the ability to use the
multimeter will help the student in achieving the design according to the requirements.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page 1

The VMPGO 2

Preface 6

Table of Contents 7

OBE Course Syllabus 11

Lesson 1 Basic Electrical Principles

a. Introduction 20
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 20
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 20
d. Link to Video Recording 31
e. Activity 31
f. Rubrics of Activity 31

Lesson 2 Simulation Software

a. Introduction 32
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 32
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 32
d. Link to Video Recording 25
e. Activity 39
f. Rubrics of Activity 39

Lesson 3 Resistors

a. Introduction 41
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 41
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 41
d. Link to Video Recording 48
e. Activity 48
f. Rubrics of Activity 48

Lesson 4 Ohm’s Law

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 a. Introduction 51
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 51
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 51
d. Link to Video Recording 54
e. Activity 54
f. Rubrics of Activity 58

Lesson 5 Series Circuits

a. Introduction 58
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 59
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 59
d. Link to Video Recording 65
e. Activity 65
f. Rubrics of Activity 68

Lesson 6 Parallel Circuits

a. Introduction 69
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 69
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 69
d. Link to Video Recording 73
e. Activity 73
f. Rubrics of Activity 75

Lesson 7 Series-Parallel Circuits

a. Introduction 76
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 76
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 76
d. Link to Video Recording 83
e. Activity 84
f. Rubrics of Activity 84

Lesson 8 Capacitors

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 87
a. Introduction
88
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes
88
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson
104
d. Link to Video Recording
104
e. Activity
105
f. Rubrics of Activity

Lesson 9 Inductors

a. Introduction 109
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 109
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 109
d. Link to Video Recording 113
e. Activity 114
a. Rubrics of Activity 114

Lesson 10 Diodes
115
a. Introduction
115
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes
115
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson
119
d. Link to Video Recording
119
e. Activity
120
f. Rubrics of Activity

Lesson 11 Power Supply

121
a. Introduction
121
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes
121
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson
123
d. Link to Video Recording
123
e. Activity
124
f. Rubrics of Activity
125
Reference List

Certificate of Approval for ECEN 101

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COURSE SYLLABUS

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 Lesson 1
Basic Electrical Principles

INTRODUCTION
The evolution of electronics starting with the idea of amber to the development of
integrated circuit is discussed in this topic. The charged particles like proton and electron
are included to further understand the effect of the valence electrons in determining the
characteristics of different materials. Basic principles like current, voltage and resistance
are also explained to help the students understand their relationship with each other.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Understand the atomic theory and its relationship to types of materials.
2. Differentiate charge and current.
3. Recognize the materials and test instruments used in electronics.

LECTURE DISCUSSION
1. Evolution of Electronics
Electronics came from the idea of Thales of Miletus who was born between 624-
547 BCE (before common era or birth of Christ). He wrote about the attraction of straw
and dust to fossilized tree sap called amber (amber is the Greek word for electron) and
from there we are witness to the fast-changing development of electronics.
Below are the great people who contributed in the development of Electronics:
Name Discovery Year Discovered
Thales Wrote about the attraction 600 BC
of straw and dust to
fossilized tree sap called
amber.
Allesandro Volta Discovered that electricity 1800
is produced when two

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 different metals are in
contact with moistened
cloth.
Charles Coulomb Discovered the force 1785
between electrically
charged objects.
Hans Oersted Determined that magnetic 1820
field is present when
current flows in a wire.
George Ohm Determined the 1826
relationship between
current and voltage in an
electric circuit.
Andrew Ampere Discovered the correct 1827
theory of electromagnetic
force.
Michael Faraday Discovered the principle of 1831
electromagnetic induction.
He invented the electric
motor.
Thomas Alva Edison Invented the incandescent 1879
bulb.
Guglielmo Marconi Developed the first 1895
practical invention in radio
telegraphy and received
the first trans-Atlantic radio
signal in 1901.
Joseph John Thomson Discovered the electron. 1897
Samuel Morse Invented the telegraph and
the code that bears his
name.
Ambrose Fleming and Lee Invented the vacuum tube. 1902
de Forest
Nick Holonyak Invented the first visible 1962
spectrum LED.
John Bardeen, William Invented the transistor. 1948
Shockley and Walter
Brattain
Robert Noyce and Jack Invented the integrated 1958
Kilby circuit.

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 2. Parts of the Simplest Circuit
In electronics, the simplest circuit is formed by using a wire, a load and a supply
voltage. The wire connects the load and the supply voltage. The energy from the supply
voltage is used by the load to perform an assigned task, i.e., if the load is a bulb, it will
light up. When there is current flow, the circuit is called a closed circuit. When current is
not flowing, the circuit is considered as an open circuit.

load

Supply Voltage

Connecting
wire

The circuit in Figure a is an example of an open

circuit because the switch is open. The current in
the circuit will not flow because of the opening. If
there is no current flow in resistor R1, therefore no
voltage will be dropped in the resistor.

a. Open circuit –
no current

In Figure b, the switch Is closed, allowing the

current flow in the circuit. There will be a voltage
drop in R1 because of the current flowing in the
resistor and the resistance of R1.

b. Closed circuit

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3. Types of Electronic Components

1. Passive electronic components are components that do not generate

energy but can store or dissipate it. It includes resistors, inductors and
capacitors.
2. Active electronic components are components that rely on an external
source to control or modify electrical signals. It includes diode, transistor,
MOSFETs, etc.

3. Common Materials Used in Basic Electronics

Name of the Symbol Function Actual Picture

Material
Resistor limit current flow

Capacitor store dc voltage

Inductor produce induced

voltage
Breadboard For solderless
connection of
electronic
components
Multimeter

Soldering iron Used to solder or

join the electronic
components
Pliers Used to hold the
materials

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 Desoldering tool Used to desolder
or remove the
connection of
electronic
components
Soldering lead Used to join the
terminals of
electronic
components
Ferric Chloride Used to etch the
circuit design on
the PCB. It
dissolves the
exposed copper
of the PCB.
Printed circuit This is where the
board circuit design is
constructed or
etched.

Resistor is a passive component that limits the flow of current. Resistance,

measured in ohms, is the characteristic of resistor which determines how good the
resistor can oppose current flow. Fixed resistors are resistors whose resistances do not
change when subjected to different conditions while variable type are resistors that can
change its resistance. Usually, these types of resistors are rated according to its
maximum value.
The capacitors are devices that can store electrical energy in the form of DC
voltage. The ability of capacitor to store electrical energy is called capacitance and is
measured in farad.
Inductors has the same ability as in the capacitor, but instead of directly storing
the voltage, it is producing it by means of electromagnetic field, this is called induced
voltage. The inductance of the inductor determines how good an inductor can induce
voltage and it is measured in terms of henry. Transformer is an example of inductor that
the student will use in their basic power supply design.

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 Breadboard is used to construct the circuit without the need for soldering iron and
soldering lead. It is a solderless connection for the electronic components used in a
circuit.
Multimeter is an example of test instrument that can measure resistance, voltage
and current. It is also called volt-ohm-milliammeter.
A soldering iron is a hand tool used to join two or more electronic components by
heating their metal terminals and melting soldering lead onto them.
The pliers are hand tools designed for gripping, bending, cutting and manipulating
various materials.
The wire stripper is a hand tool used to remove the insulation or protective coating
from electrical wires to expose the conductive wire.
The desoldering tool, often referred as desoldering pump, is used to remove the
solder and thereby removing the connection between terminals or electronic components.
The soldering lead is used as the filler material in soldering process. It is a metal
alloy with a low melting point that is used to join two or more metal surfaces.
A printed circuit board is a flat, rigid board made of non-conductive material that
serves as the base for mounting and connecting electronic components.
The ferric chloride, FeC13, is a chemical compound used in making PCB designs.
The chemical dissolves the copper exposed on the PCB so the only remaining copper
will be the design which was covered by masking tape.
4. Safety Guidelines in Electronics Laboratory
1. Before working on any electronic equipment or circuit, make sure it is unplugged and
disconnected from the power source. Use the voltmeter to verify if the circuit is
deenergized before touching or probing them.
2. Insulate or shield live electrical connections to prevent accidental contact.
3. Regularly inspect electronic equipment and cords for damage, exposed wires, or
frayed insulation. Replace damaged equipment immediately.

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4. If your work involves chemicals, handle them in a designated area with proper
ventilation. Be prepared for chemical spills having spill response kits and instructions
readily available.
5. Do not overload electrical outlets or extension cords.
6. Avoid flammable materials near hot soldering irons or soldering stations.
7. Work in a well-ventilated area or use fume extraction equipment when soldering to
avoid inhaling harmful fumes.
8. Always turn off soldering irons and hot air rework stations when not in use.
9. Use soldering iron stand when soldering.
10. Keep your workspace clean and well-organized to prevent accidents and avoid tripping
hazards.
11. Secure loose cables and wires to prevent entanglement or accidental disconnection.
12. Remember that water and electricity do not mix. Food and drinks are not allowed in
the laboratory. Avoid your drinks to spill in your workspace.
13. Electricity is dangerous when not handled properly, so avoid horseplay in the
laboratory.
14. Know the location and proper use of emergency exits, eyewash stations, safety
showers, and first aid kits. Establish clear evacuation procedures and assembly points
in case of emergencies.
15. Have fire extinguishers, fire blankets, and smoke detectors in the laboratory, and
ensure that they are inspected and maintained.
5. Effect of Current in your Body

Amount of Current, mA Effect to your Body

0– 1.5 Threshold of sensation
1-5 Mild shock
3-10 Pain
10-40 Can’t let go

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 30-75 Respiratory paralysis
75-100 Ventricular Fibrillations
250-300 Heart stops beating
5000-6000 Organ burns

Alternating Current (AC) sources are voltages from an outlet or coming from the
transformer while Direct Current (DC) sources are voltages from a battery or power
supply. Compared to AC, current in DC source is less due to lower voltage. But still,
caution must be taken when dealing with electronic circuits.

6. Atomic Structure
The amount of current flow in a circuit depends on the valence electrons. Valence
electrons are the electrons at the outermost layer of the atomic structure. The atomic
structure is formed with the nucleus in the center and with orbits around it. The protons
and neutrons are inside the nucleus while the electrons are in the orbits. Protons are
positively charged particles; electrons are negatively charged particles and neutrons do
not have charge. Protons and neutrons are collectively known as neutrons. The number
of protons is equal to the number of electrons. This number represents the atomic number
of the atom. The sum of number of protons and number of neutrons is the mass number
of the atom.
Example: 19 atomic mass
F
9 atomic number

Virtually all the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus, because electrons
weigh so little.

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 proton

electron

neutron

The electrons are distributed in the orbits according to this table:

Orbit Maximum No. of Electrons
K 2
L 8
M 8 or 18
N 8, 18, or 32
O 8 or 18
P 8 or 18
Q 8
Common Elements Used in Electronics
Name of Element Symbol Atomic Number Number of Valence
Electrons
Copper Cu 29 1
Silicon Si 14 4
Germanium Ge 32 4
Gallium Al 31 3
Aluminum Sb 13 3
Phosphorus P 15 5
Distribution of Electrons in the Orbits

Name of Atomic K L M N Number of

Element Number Valence
Electrons
Copper 29 2 8 18 1 1
Silicon 14 2 8 4 4
Germanium 32 2 8 18 4 4
Gallium 31 2 8 18 3 3
Aluminum 13 2 8 3 3
Phosphorus 15 2 8 5 5

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 The number of valence electrons are found at the outermost orbit of the atom.
7. Charge and Current

Charge are particles of matter that are not in motion, it is represented by the letter
symbol Q and is measured in coulombs (C). When these particles of matter are in motion,
it is called current (I) and it is measured in amperes (A). One coulomb of charge passes
any point in a circuit in which a current of one ampere flows for one second.

In this equation, the product of current and time is equal to charge. One coulomb
of charge passes any point in a circuit in which a current of 1 ampere that flows for one
second. Current is directly proportional to the charge and is inversely proportional to the
time. If the charge is increased, current also increases. If the charge flows for a longer
time, current decreases. One ampere of current requires 6.25 x 10 18 number of electrons.
The charge of each electron = 1/6.25 x 1018 = 0.16 x 10-18 C.
There are two current directions used in analyzing circuits- electron flow and
conventional flow. The electron flow is a current flow that starts from the negative terminal
of the battery and ends to the positive terminal of the battery. The conventional current
flow is the opposite of the electron flow.

a. Electron Current Flow b. Conventional Current Flow

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 Resistance (R) is the opposition to the flow of current and measured in ohms ()
while conductance (G) is the ability of the material to allow current flow and measured in
mho or siemens ( or S). Resistance is the reciprocal of conductance.
Types of Electric Charge
Type of Current Polarity Source
Electron Negative current Wire conductors, vacuum
tubes, semiconductor
Ion Mix types In liquids and gases
Hole Positive current In P type semiconductor

Electricity may be produced by the following:

1. Static electricity is the type of electricity that can be produced by friction, example:
rubbing materials to produce electricity.
2. Conversion of chemical energy
Example: dry cell or battery
3. Electromagnetism
Example: motors and generators
4. Photoelectricity
Example: photocells, photodiodes, phototransistors
Two types of currents:

1. Direct Current (DC) is a current that always flows in one direction. It may increase
or decrease but only in one quadrant or phase. Generally, it comes in smaller
current and voltage values. Examples are cells, batteries and power supply.
2. Alternating Current (AC) flows one way, then the other way, continuously reversing
directions. Usually comes in higher current and voltage values. Examples are
output of the transformer and power outlet (power line).

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 a. Direct Current b. Alternating Current
Link to Video Recording:
(link will be given by the faculty)

Activity:
Assignment No. 1: (to be written in your notebook)
1. Prepare a table for the electronic components and test instruments used in
Electronics with the following details:
a. Name of the electronic device/test instrument
b. Schematic symbol
c. Function
d. Actual picture

Rubrics of Activity:
Assignment Rubrics (5 points)
Criteria Score Excellent Good Poor
Content 2 All the Most of the Some of the
requirements requirements requirements
were were were
submitted. submitted. submitted
Organization 2 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was was not was
organized and organized but organized but
neatly neatly was not neatly
presented. presented. presented.
Timeliness 1 The The The
assignment assignment assignment

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 was submitted was submitted was submitted
on time. more than 2 more than 5
days after the days after the
deadline. deadline.

Lesson 2
Simulation Software
INTRODUCTION
This course does not tackle only the theoretical knowledge of electronic circuits; it also
involves comparing the results to data measured from actual circuits and validating them using
the simulation software. The most utilized software here is Multisim, which is used to create a
circuits by using schematic symbols. Resistances, voltages, currents and frequencies can be
measured by using the test instruments, and waveforms can also be viewed in this software.
Tinkercad is also used to create and simulate circuits. Unlike Multisim, which uses schematic
symbols, Tinkercad uses actual picture of the electronic components and test instruments.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Apply the use of simulation software in evaluating electronic circuits.
2. Compare the experience of using the Multisim and Tinkercad.

LECTURE DISCUSSION

Multisim
Multisim is an easy-to-use schematic capture and simulation environment that
engineers, students, and professors can use to define and simulate circuits. It integrates
industry-standard SPICE simulation with an interactive schematic environment to
instantly visualize and analyze electronic circuit behavior. It is also known as “Electronics
Workbench”.
Parts of the Circuit Window or Workspace:
1. The Menu Bar is where you find commands for all functions.

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 2. The Design toolbar is where you navigate through the different types of files in a
project (schematics, PCBs, reports), view a schematic’s hierarchy and show or
hid different layers.
3. The Component toolbar contains buttons that you use to select components
from the Multisim databases for placement in your schematic.
4. The Standard toolbar contains buttons for commonly performed functions such
as Save, Print, Cut, and Paste.
5. The View toolbar contains buttons for modifying the way the screen is displayed.
6. The Simulation toolbar contains buttons for starting, stopping, and other
simulation functions.
7. The Main toolbar contains buttons for common Multisim functions.
8. The In Use List contains a list of all components used in the design.
9. The Instruments toolbar contains buttons for each instrument.
11. The Circuit Window (or workspace) is where you build your circuit designs.
12. The Spreadsheet View allows fast advanced viewing and editing of parameters
including component details such as footprints, RefDes, attributes and design
constraints. You can change parameters for some or all components in one step
and perform several other functions.

Footprints are the package assigned to the virtual components. Refdes or reference
designator is a label that identifies the location of a component within a schematic
diagram or on a printed circuit board, while attributes are component properties. It is very
helpful to have a ready schematic diagram when creating your circuit in Multisim. The first
step is to collect all the components and put them on the workspace, then rotate according
to their positions in the circuit. Obtain the required supply voltage and ground. Connect
all the components and the supply voltage following the circuit connections. Then select
the test instrument needed for the required data.

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 (https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/tutorial-getting-started-with-multisim/7557253)

How to Create and Simulate Circuits Using the Multisim

Example 1.
Create the circuit in Multisim and then show the input and output waveform of the
circuit.

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A. Collect all the materials and put on the workspace
1. Click File New Create (workspace will appear)
2. To get the components, click Place then Components. Choose from the Groups
and family of components. You must explore the content of the databases to know
where to get the components you need. Values can be assigned when you take it
from the Place function, or you may change the values even it is connected in the
circuit. If you want to change the value or label of the components, just double click
the value that you want to change.
Note:
Component Group/Family
Resistors Basic/Resistor
Operational amplifier Analog/OpAmp

3. After getting all the components, choose the required supply voltage. Click Place
then Power Sources. Take also the ground. (Circuit will not simulate when it is not
grounded.) Changing of voltage values has the same process as in the
components.

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4. Multisim is a modeless wiring environment. This means that Multisim determines
the functionality of the mouse tool by the position of the mouse. To begin wiring,
move the mouse close to a pin of a component. Complete the wire by moving the
mouse to another terminal or just double-click to anchor the termination point of
the wire to a floating location somewhere in the workspace. Complete the wiring
as given in the circuit. For V_POS, select Place Connectors On- page
connectors and place at Pin 8 of the op-amp. Do the same with V_NEG but
connect it to pin 4.

5. For simulation, you need the test instrument to visualize the data. The instrument
toolbar can be found on the right side of the workspace. Connect Channel A of the
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oscilloscope to the source signal (+ pin 3, -ground) and Channel B output of the
circuit (+ output, - ground). This is an amplifier, so we expect that the output
waveform is bigger than the input waveform (oscilloscope must be in AC mode).

Put the cursor to the oscilloscope and

double click to view the waveform.

For easy visualization of the result, you

may change the color of the wirings.
Right click on the wire and choose
segment color. The segment color for
the output on the waveform is blue
while the input is red.

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Tinkercad
Tinkercad is a free web app for 3D design, electronics, and coding. For electronics,
it has a range of electronic components that can be used to build circuits and control
devices, and it also has a built-in Arduino simulator that allows users to program and test
their circuits in a virtual environment. This makes it easy to prototype and test new ideas
before building them in the real world. An account must be created to use this web app.

How to use the Tinkercad:

1. Open your account and click Create.

2. Choose the type of design that you want to create.

3. You may begin creating the design by clicking and dragging the devices from the
right side and placing them on the left side.

37
 4. For simulation, just click Start Simulation.

Link to Video Recording: (link will be given by the faculty)

Activity:
Assignment No. 2: (to be written in your notebook)
Multisim Simulation:

38
 1. Create the given circuit on the left using the
Multisim. Show the input and output
waveform of the circuit.
2. Submit the pdf copy of the circuit showing
the input and output waveforms.
3. Describe your experience in using the
Multisim.

Rubrics of Activity:
Assignment Rubrics (5 points)
Criteria Score Excellent Good Poor
Content 2 All the Most of the Some of the
requirements requirements requirements
were were were
submitted. submitted. submitted
Organization 2 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was was not was
organized and organized but organized but
neatly neatly was not neatly
presented. presented. presented.
Timeliness 1 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was submitted was submitted was submitted
on time. more than 2 more than 5
days after the days after the
deadline. deadline.

39
 Lesson 3
Resistors
INTRODUCTION
One of the most important electronic components is the resistor. Resistors come in
different sizes-larger ones are typically used for high-power circuits, while smaller packages are
used in low-power circuits. The ability of the resistor to limit current is called resistance and it is
measured in ohms. This device is rated according to its resistance, which is its ability to limit
current, and can be read using the Resistor Color Code. This code will be discussed in this topic.
This device has two general classifications: fixed resistance and variable resistance resistors. A
fixed resistance resistor does not change its resistance, and its value is typically using a color
code or written on its body. Variable resistance resistors are rated according to their maximum
resistance.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Enumerate the types and functions of the resistors.
2. Learn how to read the resistance by using its color code.
3. Measure resistance using the ohmmeter.
LECTURE DISCUSSION
A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component that controls the flow of
electrons. Passive electronic component is an electrical device that does not require an
external power source to perform its basic function in a circuit. It has no ability to amplify
or modify the waveform of the signal. Its resistance, represented by R, tells how good the
resistor can limit the flow of electrons, and it is measured in ohms (). The higher the
resistance, the less the number of electrons that can flow and vice versa.
Why do we use resistors?
1. Current limiting resistors are often used to limit the amount of current flowing in a
circuit. A good example is connecting a resistor in series with the LED. The
connected external resistance is added to the resistance of the LED thereby

40
 increasing the total resistance of the circuit. This decreases the current flowing in
the LED and preventing damage due to excessive current.
2. Resistors are used to provide specific voltage levels by voltage divider or using the
potentiometer, a variable resistor.
3. In transistors and other semiconductor devices, resistors are used to provide their
required voltages.
4. In digital circuits, pulldown and pullup resistors are used to ensure that a pin or
node has a defined voltage level when it’s not being actively driven by another
source. Pullup resistors are used to connect a pin to a high voltage (Vcc) , while
pulldown resistors connect a pin to ground (0V).
Schematic Symbol of Resistor:
There are two schematic symbols used for
resistors- IEEE (left) and IEC (right). The
most popular is the IEEE symbols.
There are two basic types of resistors:
1. Linear resistors
2. Non- linear resistors
Linear resistors are classified as fixed type
or variable resistors.
(Electrical Technology EG)

Types of Linear Resistors:

1. Fixed resistors:
Fixed resistors are resistors that has a specific value and cannot be changed.
• Carbon composition resistors are resistors that uses color code to mark
their resistance on their bodies. It can be a four, five or six color bands.
• Wire wound resistors are constructed using a conductive wire and wound
on a non-conductive core. The resistances are marked on their body.

41
 • Thick and thin film resistors are resistors with metallic film that is vacuum
deposited on an insulating substrate. The resistance depends on the
thickness of the film. The thicker the film, the higher the resistance.
• Surface Mounted Device resistors are tiny rectangular ceramic body with
silver conductive edges on either end. It features the resistance value code
printed onto it, where there is space.

2. Variable resistors:
The values of these resistors can change through a dial, knob, and screw or
manually by a proper method. These include the sliding arm type. The arm is
connected to a shaft and resistance can be changed by moving the arm. Usually
used as volume control and tone control. These types of resistors are usually rated
according to its maximum resistance.
• Potentiometers are variable resistors used to change the voltage by
changing their resistance. This device is connected in parallel with the
output.
• Rheostats change the current by varying their resistance, connected in
series.
• Trimmers are variable resistors that is designed to be infrequently adjusted,
usually just at the point of manufacture or when the unit is being
recalibrated.
Types of Non-linear Resistors:
1. Thermistors are temperature-sensing devices which has large change in
resistance proportional to temperature.
2. Varistors are designed to protect electrical circuits from excessive voltage surges
or transients. The resistance varies with changes in voltage.
3. Photoresistors varies the resistance with changes in light.

42
 These resistors are usually used for special types of applications. Thermistor is used
as sensor. It is a resistance thermometer, or a resistor whose resistance is dependent on
temperature. The name came from the words “thermal” and “resistor”. A varistor is a
voltage dependent resistor (VDR). Its name came from “variable resistor”. The resistance
of the device decreases when the voltage increases. The photoresistor, also called a
photocell, is a sensor that changes its resistance when light shines on it. The resistance
increases with lower intensity of light.

(Byju’s The Learning App)

Resistor Color Code:

Pneumonic Code Color

Big Black 0
Boys Brown 1
Race Red 2
Our Orange 3
Young Yellow 4
Girls Green 5
But Blue 6
Violet Violet 7
Gracefully Gray 8
Wins White 9
(www.circuitspecialists.com)

43
 There are two ratings of resistor that are important to understand- resistance and
power rating. Resistor color code is used to calculate the resistance and limit values of
the resistor while the size of the resistor determines the amount of power that it can
handle. The bigger the size, the higher the amount of heat that it can handle.

Examples:

4 6 0 x 1000

1st Yellow = 4
2nd Blue = 6
3rd Black = 0
4th Orange = x 1000
Tolerance Brown = ±1%

Surface Mount Device (Resistor)

Example 1.

R represents the decimal point. Unit is in ohms

R47 = .47 ohms = 0.47 ohms

Example 2.

K represents the decimal point. Unit is in kiloohms

K47 = .47 kiloohms = 0.47 kiloohms = 470 ohms

44
Resistor Ratings:
1. Resistance rating is determined by its color code or rating on its body
2. Power rating is determined by its size.

Power is the rate per unit time at which electrical energy is transferred by an electric
circuit and it is measured in watts.

If you replace a damaged resistor, as much as possible, you have to use

the same resistance or resistance within its limit values, otherwise, the
performance of the circuit will change. Power rating should be the same or higher
to withstand the heat that the circuit generates.

45
How to know if the resistor is within the limit values?

Example: The 1000 Ω resistor is to be replaced, but only 980 ± 20% resistor is
available in the market. Is it ok to use it to replace the damaged resistor?

Solution:
Given: 980 ± 20%
Change the percentage to decimal:

20% / 100 = 0.2

980 x 0.2 = 196

980 – 196 = 784 

980 + 196 = 1,176 

Limit values: 784  - 1176 

It is ok to use it, since the 1000 ohms resistor is within the limit values, therefore
you may replace it with a 980 ± 20%.

What will happen to the resistor if you use a lower power rating?
If you replace your resistor with one of a lower power rating, it may not handle
the heat generated by the current in the circuit. If not removed, it could burn,
causing the resistor to fail.
Common Troubles of Resistor:
• Open - Resistance in the resistor is infinite. if the resistor
is open, no current canflow in the resistor since the
resistance is very high.
• Shorted – Resistance in the resistor is zero. If the
resistor is shorted, maximum current will flow in the
resistor because no resistance is offered by the resistor.

46
Link to Video Recording:
(link will be given by the faculty)

Activity:
Assignment No. 3: (to be written in your notebook)
1. Give the resistance and limit values of the following resistors:
a. red, orange, black, brown, gold
b. blue, black, gold, gold
2. Give the color code of the following resistors
a. 680 K ± 10%
b. 8.3  ± 1%
3. The 12 volts supply voltage is connected to a 1000 ohms resistor. Show the
schematic diagram and solve for the current in the circuit.

Assignment Rubrics (5 points)

Criteria Score Excellent Good Poor
Content 2 All the Most of the Some of the
requirements requirements requirements
were were were
submitted. submitted. submitted
47
 Organization 2 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was was not was
organized and organized but organized but
neatly neatly was not neatly
presented. presented. presented.
Timeliness 1 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was submitted was submitted was submitted
on time. more than 2 more than 5
days after the days after the
deadline. deadline.

Experiment No. 1: Resistors

EXPERIMENT 1
RESISTORS

Objectives:

After performing this experiment, you will be able to:

1. Identify the nominal resistance and tolerance of the resistor by its color code
2. Using the Multisim, measure the resistance of the resistor using the multitester.

Materials Needed:

Resistors:
1 - 1.0 kΩ, 5 kΩ, 15 kΩ (all resistors are ½ watt)
Multimeter

Procedure:

1. Using the Multisim, measure the resistance of each resistor and record in Table
2.1. .

48
 TABLE 2.1
RESISTO COLOR NOMINAL TOLERANCE MEASURED
R CODE RESISTANCE RESISTANCE
1.0 KΩ

5 KΩ

15 KΩ

Note: You have to draw/ or take the screenshot of the diagram of at least one
resistor.

Conclusion:

Questions:

1. What is the equivalent color code of 680 Ω ± 10%?

2. What is the equivalent nominal resistance and tolerance of orange orange blue
gold?
3. What are the limit values of red red gold gold? (SHOW YOUR COMPUTATION)
4. Explain how to calibrate the ohmmeter.

EXPERIMENT RUBRICS (10 POINTS)

49
 Lesson 4
Ohm’s Law

INTRODUCTION
George Simon Ohm, a German scientist and mathematician discovered the relationship
between current and voltage while using the new electrochemical cell which was invented by
Alessandro Volta. He found out that there is a direct proportionality between the voltage applied
in a material and current (moving charges). This phenomenon is then named after him - Ohm’s
Law, an important founding principle used in analyzing circuits.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
4. Understand and apply the characteristics of Ohm’s Law.
5. Be able to use the multimeter to measure resistance, voltage and current.

LECTURE DISCUSSION
In the previous topic, circuit is defined as an interconnection between devices or

50
electronic components. The basic parts of a circuit are the potential differential or voltage,
the wires to make the connection and the load (the one that uses the power) which is
represented by a resistor. Open circuit is described as a connection between
components that does not allow current flow because the switch is open. Therefore, if
there is an open path in any part of the circuit, no current will be produced. On the other
hand, a closed circuit is a circuit with a complete path that allows current flow.
Ohm’s Law:

V
I R

V = IR I = V/R R = V/I
Where:
R = resistance, ohms ()
V = voltage, volts (v)
I = current, ampere (A)
Ohm’s law states that the current is inversely proportional to the resistance but
directly proportional to the voltage. The current in the circuit is dependent on the amount
of voltage applied in the circuit. If the voltage is low, the number of charges that can move
is also low and thus, resulting to low current. If the voltage is increased, current is also
increased. Relationship of current to resistance is opposite of that of the voltage.
Resistance is the ability of the material to limit current. With this relationship, we say that
if we use higher resistance, the current produced is becoming less, and vice versa.
Example 1:
The circuit has a resistance of 10 Ω and its current is 1 A. What is the voltage in the
circuit? If the resistance is doubled, how much is the current in the circuit?

Given:
51
R = 10 
I=1A
V =?
Solution 1:
V = IR = 1 x 10 = 10 volts

If the resistance becomes double, what is the current in the circuit?

I = V/R = 10/20 = 0.5 A As the current doubled, the current is cut into half, proving that the
resistance is inversely proportional to the current.

Example 1:
A potential difference of 40 volts is connected to a resistance of 2.2 K, how much
current will be in the circuit?

Given:
R = 2.2 K
V = 40 volts
I =?
Solution 2:
The resistance should be in ohms, so we have to convert K to :

2.2 K x 1000  = 2200 

K

I = V/R = 40/2200 = 0.018 A

Example 3:
A current of 500 milliamperes resulted from a circuit that is connected to a 12 volts
power supply. What resistance does the circuit have?

Given:

52
I = 500 mA
V = 12 volts
R =?
Solution 2:
The current must be in ampere, so we have to convert milliamperes to ampere:

500 mA x 1 A
1000mA

I = 0.5 A

R = V/I = 12/0.5 = 24 volts

Link to Video Recording:

(link will be given by the faculty)

Activity:
Assignment No. 4: (to be written in your notebook)
1. The 2000  ¼ w resistor receives a current of 9 mA then increased to 15 mA,
what do you think will happen to the resistor? Prove your answer.
2. A 5 k resistor is connected to a 9 volts supply voltage. How much power will be
dissipated by the resistor?
3. A potential voltage of 15 volts is connected to a bulb. A current of 1.5 mA flows
through it. Calculate the resistance of the bulb.

Assignment Rubrics (5 points)

Criteria Score Excellent Good Poor
Content 2 All the Most of the Some of the
requirements requirements requirements
were were were
submitted. submitted. submitted
Organization 2 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was was not was

53
 organized and organized but organized but
neatly neatly was not neatly
presented. presented. presented.
Timeliness 1 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was submitted was submitted was submitted
on time. more than 2 more than 5
days after the days after the
deadline. deadline.

Experiment No. 2: Ohm’s Law

EXPERIMENT NO. 2
OHM’S LAW

Objectives:

After performing this experiment, you will be able to:

3. Analyze the relationship between voltage and current using Multisim.
4. Plot the graph of current-voltage and determine the resistance using it.

Materials Needed:

Resistors:
1 - 1.0 kΩ, 5 kΩ, 15 kΩ (all ½ watt)
1 - dc ammeter, 0 – 10 mA
Variable Power Supply

Procedure:
2. Using the Multisim, construct the circuit shown below.

54
 3. Connect the circuit shown in the diagram above. Notice that the ammeter is in series with
the resistor and forms a single “loop” as shown in the printed circuit board wiring. The
voltmeter is then connected directly across the resistor.
Caution! In actual, ammeters can be easily damaged if they are incorrectly connected.
Have your instructor check your connections before applying power.

4. Adjust the power supply for a voltage of 1.5 V. Read the current that is flowing through
resistor R1 and record it in Table 1 .

5. Adjust the power supply for 3.0 V and measure the current. Record the current in Table
1. Continue taking current readings for each of the voltages listed in Table 1

For 1 KΩ Resistor: Table 1.1

VS = 1.5 V 3.0 V 9.0 V

I=

6. Replace R1 with R2 and repeat steps 3 and 4. Record the data in Table 2
For 5 KΩ Resistor Table 1.2
VS = 1.5 V 3.0 V 9.0 V

I=

7. Replace R2 with R3 and repeat steps 3 and 4. Record the data in Table 3
For 15 KΩ Resistor Table 1.3
VS = 1.5 V 3.0 V 9.0 V

I=

Note: You have to draw/ or take the screenshot of the diagram of at least one
resistor.

8. Graph all three I-V curves using the data from Tables 1,2 &3. .Plot the dependent variable
(current) on the y-axis and the independent variable (voltage) on the x-axis. Choose a
scale for the graph that spreads the data over the entire grid.

55
 mA
10

V
0 4 6 8 10

Conclusion:

Questions:

1. (a) If the resistance is halved and the voltage is not changed, what will happen to the
current in a resistive circuit?

(b) If the voltage is doubled and the resistance is not changed, what will happen to the
current in a resistive circuit?

2. If the current in a resistive circuit is 24 mA and the applied voltage is 48 V, what is the
resistance?

3. What current will flow through a 10Ω resistor with a 5.0 V applied?

56
 EXPERIMENT RUBRICS (10 POINTS)

Lesson 5
Series Circuits

INTRODUCTION
The series circuit is the foundation of the circuits that we have right now. It is a
circuit where the components are connected end to end. The current will go first to the
first component and goes to the next device and so on and so forth. The amount of current
in one device is the same for all the other components of the circuit. In this topic, we will
57
be using the software tool to understand the characteristics of the circuit.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Discuss the characteristics of the series circuit.
2. Solve problems and verify the results by using the software.

LECTURE DISCUSSION

What is a series circuit?

A series circuit is an electrical circuit arrangement in which components are

connected end-to-end in a single pathway for the flow of electric current. In a series circuit,
there is only one path for the current to follow, meaning that the same current flows
through each component in the circuit. Here are some key characteristics of a series
circuit.

1. Single Path for Current

In a series circuit, all components (such as resistors, lamps, or other devices) are
connected one after the other, forming a continuous loop. Current flows from the negative
terminal of the power source, through each component in sequence, and returns to the
positive terminal of the power source. Since the same current flows through all
components in a series circuit, the current remains constant throughout the entire circuit.
This is the fundamental characteristic of series circuits.

58
 2. Voltage Divider
The total voltage supplied by the power source is divided among the components
in a series circuit. Each component consumes a portion of the total voltage. The voltage
across each component adds up to the total voltage of the circuit.

59
 3. Resistance Adds

The total resistance in a series circuit is the sum of the individual resistances of each
component. This means that as you add more resistors in series, the overall resistance of the
circuit increases.

If one component fails (e.g., a bulb burns out in a series of light bulbs) , it can break the circuit,
and all the other components downstream from the failure will cease to operate. Series circuits
are less common in everyday electrical applications because of their limitations. They are often
used when you want to ensure that the same current flows through multiple components or when
you want to divide a voltage source across multiple resistors. However, for most practical
purposes, parallel circuits, parallel circuits, where components are components are connected in
multiple paths, are more commonly used because they offer greater flexibility and redundancy.

60
Example 1:

Solution:
a. RT = R1 + R2 + R3
= 20 + 30 + 50
= 100 Ω

b. IT = VT / RT
= 125 / 100
= 1.25 A

c. The circuit is in series so the total current of 1.25 A is the same current
that will flow in all resistors.

d. V1 = I1 x R1
= 1. 25 x 20
= 25 volts

V2 = I2 x R2
61
 = 1. 25 x 30
= 37.5 volts

V3 = I3 x R3
= 1. 25 x 50
= 62.5 volts
Example 2:

Referring to the same problem in Example No. 1, find the voltage drops
usingvoltage divider.

Example 3:
Referring to the circuit diagram of Example No. 1, determine the total current of the circuit
when
a. the 20-ohm resistor is open.
b. the 20-ohm resistor is shorted.

Solution:

a. When the 20-ohm resistor is open, its resistance becomes very high. Using Ohm’s
Law, when the resistance is very high, its current becomes negligible or almost zero.

b. When the 20-ohm resistor is shorted, its resistance becomes zero. Using Ohm’s Law,
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
= 0 + 30 + 50
62
 = 80 Ω
IT = VT / RT
= 80 / 100
= 0.8 A

What is grounding?
Grounding refers to the process of creating a direct, low-resistance path for
electrical current to flow safely into the Earth or to a designated ground point.
Grounding serves several important purposes in electrical and electronic systems,
including:
• Electrical Safety: Grounding helps protect people and property from electrical faults,
such as short circuits or electrical surges. It provides a safe path for excess electrical
current to dissipate, preventing electric shocks and fires.
• Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Reduction: Grounding helps reduce
electromagnetic interference by providing a reference point for electrical signals and
noise to be discharged or absorbed. This is particularly important in sensitive electronic
equipment to maintain signal quality and prevent interference.
• Voltage Stabilization: Grounding can help stabilize voltage levels by providing a
common reference point for electrical circuits. It ensures that electrical potential
remains consistent across different parts of a system.
• Static Electricity Dissipation: Grounding is used to dissipate static electricity, which can
accumulate an object and pose a hazard, especially in environments where flammable
materials are present

Example 4:
Determine the voltage drops at points A, B and C. Indicate the voltage polarity.

63
 VA = V100 + V200 + V300 VB = V200 + V300 VC = V300
= 20 + 40 + 60 = 40 + 60 = +60 V
= + 120 V = +100

Link to Video Recording:

(link will be given by the faculty)
Activity:
Assignment No. 5: (to be written in your notebook)
A series 500 ohms, 2500 ohms, and 5000 ohms resistors is connected to a 12 volts
supply. Draw the schematic diagram and answer all the questions below. Show your
solution.

1. What is the voltage drop of the 5000 ohms resistor?

2. What is the current of the circuit?

64
 3. Compare the voltage drops of 5000 ohms and 500 ohms resistor. Prove your
answer by showing the software simulation.
4. If the 5000 ohms resistor is shorted, how much current does the circuit have?
5. If a 2000 ohms resistor is added in series, calculate the total resistance of the
circuit.
Assignment Rubrics (5 points)
Criteria Score Excellent Good Poor
Content 2 All the Most of the Some of the
requirements requirements requirements
were were were
submitted. submitted. submitted
Organization 2 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was was not was
organized and organized but organized but
neatly neatly was not neatly
presented. presented. presented.
Timeliness 1 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was submitted was submitted was submitted
on time. more than 2 more than 5
days after the days after the
deadline. deadline.

Experiment No. 3: Series Circuit

EXPERIMENT 3

SERIES CIRCUIT

Objectives:

After performing this experiment, you will be able to:

5. Identify the characteristics of a series circuit using the Multisim.

65
 6. Measure the voltages and currents of a series circuit

Materials Needed:

Resistors:

1 - 1.0 kΩ, 5 kΩ,15 kΩ (all resistors are ½ watt)

9 Volts battery

Multimeter

Procedure:

1. Using the Multisim, connect the three resistors as shown below

2. Measure the voltage drops in all the resistor and record in Table 3.1.

3. Measure the currents in all the resistor and record in Table 3-1

4. Compute the voltage drops and currents in each resistors .( Use separate sheet ).

TABLE 3.1

RESISTOR VOLTAGE CURRENT

Measured Calculated Measured Calculated

1.0 K

5K

66
 15 K

Note: You have to draw/ or take the screenshot of the diagram of at least one
resistor.

Conclusion:

Questions:

1. If one of the resistors is removed from the circuit, what do you think will happen to
its current?

2. If the source voltage is reduced to 3V, what will happen to the current in the circuit?

3. When one of the resistors is open , what do you think will happen to its current?

EXPERIMENT RUBRICS (10 POINTS)

67
 Lesson 6
Parallel Circuits

INTRODUCTION
The parallel circuit is also one the basic circuits in understanding complex circuits.
Just like the series circuit, its characteristics are important in analyzing and modifying
circuit diagrams. Unlike the series circuit, parallel circuit is constructed by connecting all
one end terminals together and the all other terminals are also connected together.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Discuss the characteristics of the parallel circuit.
2. Solve problems and verify the results by using the software.

LECTURE DISCUSSION
What is a parallel circuit?
A parallel circuit is an electrical circuit arrangement in which components are
connected in multiple pathways, allowing for the flow of electric current to split and follow
multiple routes simultaneously. In a parallel circuit, each component is connected across
the same voltage source, and they share the same endpoints (usually the positive and
negative terminals of the power source). Here are some key characteristics of a parallel
circuit:
1. Multiple Paths for Current
In a parallel circuit, there are multiple paths for the electric current to flow. Each
component is connected directly across the voltage source, forming its own branch.

68
2. Voltage Remains Constant
The voltage across each component in a parallel circuit is the same and equal to
the voltage of the power source. This means that components in parallel have the same
voltage applied across them.

69
 3. Resistance Reduces
The total resistance in a parallel is less than the smallest individual
resistance in the circuit. As you add more resistors in parallel, the overall resistance
decreases.

70
71
Link to Video Recording:
(link will be given by the faculty)

Activity:
Assignment No. 6: (to be written in your notebook)
Resistors with values 175 ohms and 225 ohms are connected in parallel to a 10
volts power supply. Draw the schematic diagram and answer the following questions:

1. Find the voltage drop of the 175 ohms resistor.

2. What is the current in the 225 ohms resistor?
3. How much is the total current of the circuit?
4. If the 225 ohms resistor is open, how much total current will be in the circuit?
5. If the 175 ohms resistor is open, how much total current will be in the circuit?

Assignment Rubrics (5 points)

Criteria Score Excellent Good Poor
Content 2 All the Most of the Some of the
requirements requirements requirements
were were were
submitted. submitted. submitted
Organization 2 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was was not was
organized and organized but organized but
neatly neatly was not neatly
presented. presented. presented.
Timeliness 1 The The The
assignment assignment assignment
was submitted was submitted was submitted
on time. more than 2 more than 5
days after the days after the
deadline. deadline.

72
Experiment No. 4: Parallel Circuit

EXPERIMENT 4
PARALLEL CIRCUIT

Objectives:

After performing this experiment, you will be able to:

7. Identify the characteristics of a parallel circuit by using Multisim.
8. Measure the voltages and currents of a parallel circuit

Materials Needed:

Resistors:
1 - 1.0 kΩ, 5 kΩ,15 kΩ (all resistors are ½ watt)
9 Volts battery
Multimeter

Procedure:
9. Using the Multisim, connect the three resistors as shown below

2. Measure the voltage drops in all the resistor and record in Table 4.1.

3. Measure the currents in all the resistor and record in Table 4.1.

4. Compute the voltage drops and currents in each resistor. (Use separate sheet).

TABLE 3.1

RESISTOR VOLTAGE CURRENT

73
 Measured Calculated Measured Calculated

1.0 K

5K

15 K

Conclusion:

Questions:

1. If one of the resistors is removed from the circuit, what do you think will happen
to its current?

2. If the source voltage is reduced to 3V, what will happen to the current in the
circuit?

3. When one of the resistors is open, what do you think will happen to its current?

EXPERIMENT RUBRICS (10 POINTS)

74
 Lesson 7
Series-Parallel Circuits

INTRODUCTION
As the name implies, this circuit is a combination of series and parallel c i r c u i t s .
Included in this topic are the techniques on how to modify the circuit into a simple series
circuit to easily evaluate the parameters of the circuit. Some commonly used series-
parallel in the industries are discussed like Wheatstone bridge and the loaded voltage
divider.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Discuss the techniques used in analyzing series-parallel circuits.
2. Solve problems and verify the results by using the software.

LECTURE DISCUSSION
A series-parallel circuit is a combination of both series and parallel circuit
configurations within a single electrical circuit. In other words, it contains
elements that are connected in series and elements that are connected in
parallel. This hybrid arrangement allows for more complex and flexible circuit
designs. This type of circuit offers a balance between the characteristics of
series and parallel circuits. Series-parallel circuits are commonly encountered
in electronics and electrical engineering for various applications. Here’s how
they work:
In a series-parallel circuit, certain components are connected in series. This
means that these components are connected end-to-end, forming a single path
for the flow of current. In a series arrangement, the same current flows through
all components, and the total resistance is the sum of the individual resistances.
All characteristics of the simple series circuit can be applied to elements
connected in series.
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 Other components in the same circuit are connected in parallel. In parallel
connections, each component has the same voltage across its terminals, and
the total current is divided among the parallel branches. The total resistance in
a parallel section is reduced compared to the individual resistances. All
elements connected in parallel can apply the characteristics of the parallel
circuit.
Series-parallel circuit is a mix of characteristics from both series and
parallel arrangements. It is important to know how to simplify the circuit to
determine which characteristics must be used. For example, you may want
some components to share the same current (series) while allowing other
components to operate independently with the same voltage (parallel).
This combination circuit is employed in various applications where complex
voltage and current relationships need to be managed. They are common in
more advanced electronic devices, power distribution systems, and complex
electrical networks.
A common example of a series-parallel circuit is in the wiring of residential
lighting. In a room, you might have multiple light bulbs (connected in parallel to
the power source) within each light fixture, but these fixtures themselves could
be connected in series along a single circuit. This arrangement ensures that if
one fixture goes out, the others still work (parallel), but if you switch off one
fixture, all the lights in that series turn off together.
Engineers and technicians use these circuits in applications where precise
control over current, voltage, and component interconnection is necessary.
Analyzing and solving series-parallel circuits often requires the application of
circuit analysis techniques, such as Kirchhoff’s Laws and Ohm’s Law.
Understanding series-parallel circuits is essential for designing and
troubleshooting more complex electrical systems, as they involve a

76
combination of both series and parallel principles, providing the desired
functionality while ensuring reliability and efficiency.

Ladder-Type Network:
The ladder network is a common circuit that constructed by the series and
parallel connections. It is a network in which the product of its series and shunt
impedances is independent of frequency within the range of interest. The circuit is
commonly used for communication networks.

Ladder type series parallel circuits are simplified by starting in the resistors farthest
to the supply voltage. So, since the currents in R3 and R4 are the same, you may add
the two resistors:
R34 = R3 + R4
= 40 + 50
= 90 ohms
77
 R2 as you can see from the circuit is connected parallel to the combined resistance of
R3 and R4

R234 = R2 x R34 = 90 x 90 = 45 
R2 + R34 90 + 90

R234 is in series with R1 so the total resistance of the circuit is the sum of the two
resistances.
RT = R1 + R234 = 55 + 45 = 100 

Example 2:
Referring to the circuit diagram of Example 1, determine the voltage drops of the
resistors.

78
Determine the total current:
IT = VT / RT = 10 / 100 = 0.1 A
R1 is in series with the power source, therefore its current is the same as IT. Using
Ohm’s Law, calculate the value of voltage drop in R1.
I1 = IT because they are in series.
Find VR1:
Find VR1 = I1 x R1 = 0.1 x 55 = 5.5 V.
Since R1 and R234 are in series, you may use the Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:
V1 = VR1+ VR234
VR234 = V1 - VR1 = 10 – 5.5 = 4.5 V
Find VR2:
R234 is in parallel with R2, so
VR234 = VR2 = 4.5 V
R2 is in parallel with R34, so VR34 = VR2 = 4.5 V
I34 = VR34/ R34
= 4.5 / 90
= 0.05 A
I3 = I4 because they are in series.
Find VR3 & VR4 :
Using Ohm’s Law:
VR3 = I3 x R3 = 0.05 x 40 = 2 V
VR4 = I4 x R4 = 0.05 x 50 = 2.5 V

Example No. 3 Wheatstone Bridge

A Wheatstone is a simple electrical circuit used for measuring an unknown electrical
resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit. It was invented by Samuel Hunter

79
Christie in 1833 and later popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843. The
Wheatstone bridge is commonly used in electrical and electronic measurements,
especially for determining the resistance of an unknown resistor or sensor.
The Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistors arranged in the shape of a diamond
(or bridge) with a voltage source connected across two opposite corners and a
galvanometer (a sensitive current-measuring device) connected across the other two
opposite corners. The galvanometer’s needle or display indicates whether the bridge is
balanced or unbalanced. The key components of a Wheatstone are the two known
resistors which are typically used as reference resistors, the unknown resistor (Rx) that
is connected to one arm of the bridge whose resistance is to be measured, and the
voltage source that provides a constant voltage across the bridge circuit.
Determine the unknown resistor (Rx) if R1 = 100, R2 = 50 and R3 = 25 (Assume
that the bridge is balanced).

Solution:
When the bridge is balanced, the voltage is equal to 0 V, so there is no current in
the bridge.
Therefore, R1 and R2 are in series and the same with R3 and Rx.
Getting their voltage ratio:
V1 = V 3
V2 Vx

80
I1 R1 = I3 R3
I2 R2 Ix Rx

Since I1 = I2 and I3 = Ix,

R1 = R3
R2 Rx

Rx = R2 R3 = 50 x 25 = 12.5 
R1 100

Example No. 4 Loaded Voltage Divider

A loaded voltage divider, also known as a “loaded divider”, is an electronic circuit
used to divide a voltage into a specific ratio. It’s called “loaded” because it considers the
effect of the load, or the input impedance connected to the output of the voltage divider.
In other works, it considers how the presence of a load affects the voltage division.
The loaded voltage divider typically consists of two resistors (or a combination of
resistors and other components) connected in series. The input voltage (Vin) is applied
across the entire series combination, and the output voltage (Vout) is taken from the
junction between the two resistors.
Loaded voltage dividers are commonly used in various electronic circuits,
especially when interfacing with sensors, transducers, or other devices with specific input
impedance requirements. Designing a loaded voltage divider correctly ensures that the
output voltage remains stable and accurate under different load conditions.

81
Link to Video Recording:
(link will be given by the faculty)

82
Activity:
Assignment No. 7: (to be written in your notebook)
R4

R1 120Ω

120Ω R3

V1 120Ω
R2 R5
12V 120Ω 120Ω

Find the following:

1. V5
2. I3
3. V4
4. V2
5. V1

Assignment Rubrics (5 points)

Criteria Score Excellent Good Poor
Content 2 All the Most of the Some of the
requirements requirements requirements
were were submitted. were
submitted. submitted
Organization 2 The The assignment The
assignment was not assignment
was organized organized but was organized
and neatly neatly but was not
presented. presented. neatly
presented.
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 Timeliness 1 The The assignment The
assignment was submitted assignment
was submitted more than 2 was submitted
on time. days after the more than 5
deadline. days after the
deadline.

Experiment No. 5: Series-Parallel Circuit

EXPERIMENT 5
SERIES- PARALLEL CIRCUIT

Objectives:
After performing this experiment, you will be able to:
1. Apply the concept of equivalent circuits to simplify series-parallel circuit analysis.
2. Compute the currents and voltages in a series-parallel combination circuit and
compare your computation with software -simulated measurements.

Materials Needed:

Resistors:
R1 - 1.0 kΩ,
R2 - 5.0 kΩ, 9 V battery
R3 --15 kΩ, Multimeter
R4 -- 30 kΩ

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 5.1 by using the software tool.
2. Measure the voltages of the resistors and record in Table 5.1.
3. Measure all the currents in the circuit and record in Table 5.1.

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 Figure 5.1

TABLE 5.1
RESISTOR VOLTAGE CURRENT

Measured Calculated Measured Calculated

R1
R2
R3
R4

Conclusion:

Questions:
1. If R1 is open, will there be a current in the circuit?
2. If R2 is open, what happens to the total current in the circuit? (Increase or
decrease)
3. When R2 is shorted, what will happen to the total resistance of the circuit?
4. Calculate the total current of the circuit when R2 is shorted.
85
 EXPERIMENT RUBRICS (10 POINTS)

Lesson 8
Capacitors

INTRODUCTION
Capacitance is the ability of the capacitor to store charge. A capacitor is a
device composed of two metal plates with an insulator or dielectric in between
them. Insulator is a material that does not allow current flow, and therefore it
stores this electric charges. This device is a very important part of any circuit
because of its main function. In this topic, you will understand how capacitor works,
its uses and how to know the effect of damage capacitors in a circuit.

86
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Define capacitance and learn its importance.
2. Enumerate the types of capacitors.

LECTURE DISCUSSION

A capacitor is an electronic component that stores and releases energy in the form
of an electric field. It is one of the fundamental passive components used in electronics
and electrical circuits. Capacitors are characterized by their ability to store electric charge
and their capacitance, which is a measure of their ability to store that charge. Capacitors
are used in timing circuits, for smoothing the voltage, coupling of signals and storing
energy.
Characteristics of a Capacitor
1. Two conductive plates
A basic capacitor consists of two conductive plates that are separated by an
insulating material known as dielectric. The plates can be made of various materials,
including metal foils or conductive coatings. One plate is for a positive charge while the
other is for a negative charge.
2. Capacitance (C)
Capacitance is the fundamental property of a capacitor and is measured in farads
(F). It represents the ability of the capacitor to store electric charge. It is defined as the
ratio of electric charge Q to voltage V. A larger capacitance value indicates that the
capacitor can store more charge for a given voltage.

87
 C= Q / V
Where:
C = capacitance measured in farads (F)
Q = electric charge measured in coulomb (C)
V = applied voltage measured in volts (V)

3. Voltage rating
Capacitors are rated for a maximum voltage
that they can safely withstand without breaking down. Exceeding this voltage can lead
to catastrophic failure or damage. This rating is usually found on the body of the
capacitor.
4. Charge and Discharge
Capacitors can store electric charge when voltage is applied across them and
can release that charge when a circuit is closed. They can store energy temporarily and
then discharge it when needed, making them useful in various applications, including
energy storage and timing circuits.
5. Polarity
Some capacitors are polarized, meaning they have a specific positive and
negative terminal. Connecting a polarized capacitor with the wrong polarity can lead to
damage or failure. Non-polarized capacitors can be connected in either direction.

88
 Types of Capacitors
There is a large variety of capacitors available in the market and each one has its
own characteristics. The types of capacitors range from very small delicate trimming
capacitors used in oscillator or radio circuits, up to large power metal-can type capacitors
used in high voltage power correction and smoothing circuits.
Comparison between the different types of capacitor is generally made with
regards to the dielectric used between the plates. Like resistors, there are also variable
types of capacitors which allow us to vary their capacitance value for use in radio or tuner
type circuits.
Commercial types of capacitors are made from metallic foil interlaced with thin
sheets of either paraffin-impregnated paper or Mylar as the dielectric material. Some
capacitors look like tubes, this is because the metal foil plates are rolled up into a cylinder
to form a small package with the insulating dielectric material sandwiched in between
them.
Small capacitors are often constructed from ceramic materials and then dipped
into an epoxy resin to seal them. Either way, capacitors play an important part in
electronic circuits.
1. Dielectric Capacitors
Dielectric capacitors are usually of the variable type that can provide different
capacitances required for tuning transmitters, receivers, and transistor radios. Variable
dielectric capacitors are multiplate air-spaced types that have a set of fixed plates (stator
vanes) and a set of movable plates (rotor vanes) which move in between the fixed plates.
The position of the moving plates with respect to the fixed plates determines the
overall capacitance value. The capacitance is generally at maximum when the two sets
of plates are fully meshed. High voltage type tuning capacitors have relatively large
spacings or air gaps between the plates with breakdown voltages reaching many
thousands of volts.

89
 Included in the variable type of capacitor is the preset type of variable capacitors
called trimmers. These are generally small devices that can be adjusted or “preset” to a
particular capacitance value with the aid of a small screwdriver and are available in very
small capacitance of 500 pF or less and are non-polarized.
2. Film Capacitor
Film capacitors are the most commonly available of all types of capacitors,
consisting of a relatively large family of capacitors with the difference being in their
dielectric properties. These include polyester (mylar), polystyrene, polypropylene,
polycarbonate, metalized paper, Teflon, etc. Film capacitors are available in capacitance
ranges from as small as 5 pF to as large as 100 uF depending upon the actual type of
capacitor and its voltage rating. Film capacitors also come in an assortment of shapes
and case types which include:
• Wrap & fill (oval & round) – where the capacitor is wrapped in a tight plastic tape
and have the ends filled with epoxy to seal them.
• Epoxy case (rectangular & round) – where the capacitor is encased in a molded
plastic shell which is then filled with epoxy.
• Metal hermetically sealed (rectangular & round) – where the capacitor is encased
in a metal tube or can then sealed with epoxy,
All above case styles are available in both axial and radial leads.
Film capacitors which use polystyrene, polycarbonate or Teflon as their dielectrics
are sometimes called “plastid capacitors’. The construction of plastic film capacitors is
like that for paper film capacitors but uses plastic film instead of paper.
The main advantage of plastid film types of capacitors compared to impregnated-
paper type is that they operate well under conditions of high temperature, have smaller

90
tolerances, a very long service life and high reliability.

3. Ceramic Capacitor
Ceramic capacitors or disc capacitors as they are generally
called, are made by coating two sides of a small porcelain or
ceramic disc with silver and are then stacked together to make a
capacitor. For very low capacitance values a single ceramic disc
of about 3-6mm is used. Ceramic capacitors have a high dielectric
constant (high K) and are available so that relatively high
capacitance can be obtained in a small physical size.
They exhibit large non-linear changes in capacitance against temperature and as a
result are used as decoupling or bypass capacitors as they are also non-polarized
devices. Ceramic capacitors have values ranging from a few picofarads to one or two
microfarads, but their voltage ratings are generally quite low.
Ceramic types of capacitors generally have a 3-digit code printed onto their body to
identify their capacitance value. Generally, the first two digits indicate the capacitors value
and the third digit indicates the number of zeroes to be added. Letter codes are
sometimes used to indicate their tolerance value such as J = 5%, K =10% or M = 20%
etc.
Example:
154 – 15 0000 pF

91
 4. Electrolytic Capacitor
Electrolytic capacitors are generally used when large capacitance values are
required. This capacitor uses a very thin metallic film layer for one of the electrodes, a
semi-liquid electrolyte solution in the form of a jelly or paste which serves as the second
electrode (usually the cathode).
The dielectric is a very thin layer of oxide which is grown electro-chemically in
production with the thickness of the film being less than ten microns. This insulating layer
is so thin that it is possible to make capacitors with a large value of capacitance for a
small physical size as the distance between the plates is very narrow.,
Most electrolytic capacitors are polarized, which means that you have to connect
the device with correct polarity. Positive must be connected to positive and negative must
be connected to the negative. Incorrect polarization of the capacitor will damage the
capacitor. All electrolytic capacitors have their polarity clearly marked with a negative sign
to indicate the negative terminal.
Electrolytic capacitors are generally used in DC power supply circuits due to their
large capacitance and small size to help reduce the ripple voltage or for coupling and
decoupling applications. One main disadvantage of electrolytic capacitors is the relatively
low voltage rating and due to the polarization of electrolytic capacitor, it is not used in AC
circuits. The two types of electrolytic capacitors are aluminum and tantalum capacitors.

a. Aluminum Electrolytic
The foil plates of the capacitor are anodized with a DC current. This anodizing
process sets up the polarity of the plate material and determines which side of the plate
is positive and which side is negative.
There are basically two types of aluminum electrolytic – the plain foil
type and the etched foil type. The thickness of the aluminum oxide film and
high breakdown voltage give these capacitors very high capacitance values
for their size.

92
 The etched foil type differs from the plain foil type in that the aluminum oxide on the
anode and cathode foils has been chemically etched to increase its surface area and
permittivity. This gives a smaller sized capacitor than a plain foil type of equivalent value
but has the disadvantage of not being able to withstand high DC currents compared to
the plain type. Also, their tolerance range is quite large at up to 20%. Typical values of
capacitance for an aluminum electrolytic capacitor range from 1 uF to 47,000 uF.
Etched foils are best used in coupling, DC blocking and bypass circuits while plain
foil types are better suited as smoothing capacitors in power supplies. But aluminum
electrolytics are polarized devices so reversing the applied voltage on the leads will cause
the insulating layer within the capacitor to become destroyed along with the capacitor.
However, the electrolyte used within the capacitor helps heal a damaged plate if the
damage is small. Since the electrolyte has the properties to self-heal a damaged plate, it
also can re-anodize the foil plate. As the anodizing process can be reversed, the
electrolyte could remove the oxide coating from the foil as would happen if the capacitor
was connected with a reverse polarity. Since the electrolyte has the ability to conduct
electricity if the aluminum oxide layer was removed or destroyed, the capacitor would
allow current to pass from one plate to the other destroying the capacitor.

b. Tantalum Electrolytic
Tantalum electrolytic and tantalum beads are available in both wet (foil) and dry
(solid) electrolytic types with the dry or solid tantalum being the most common. Solid
tantalum capacitors use manganese dioxide as their second terminal and are physically
smaller than the equivalent aluminum capacitors.

93
 The dielectric of tantalum oxide is also much better than those of
aluminum oxide giving a lower leakage currents and better capacitance
stability which makes them suitable for use in blocking, bypassing,
decoupling, filtering and timing applications.
Also, tantalum, although polarized, can tolerate being
connected to a reverse voltage much more easily than the aluminum types but are rated
at much lower working voltages. Solid tantalum capacitors are usually used in circuits
where the AC voltage is small compared to the DC voltage.
However, some tantalum capacitors contain two capacitors in-one, connected
negative-to-negative to form a “non-polarized” capacitor for use in low voltage AC circuits.
Generally, the positive lead is identified on the capacitor body by a polarity mark, with the
body of a tantalum bead capacitor being an oval geometrical shape. Typical values range
from 47 nF to 470nF.
Electrolytic capacitors are widely used due to their low cost and small size but they
are easily damage by:
a. over-voltage – excessive voltage will cause current to leak through the
dielectric resulting in a short circuit condition.
b. reversed polarity – reverse voltage will cause self-destruction of the oxide
layer and failure.
c. over temperature – excessive heat dries out the electrolytic and shortens the
life of an electrolytic capacitor.

94
 (shutterstock)
What is charging?
Charging a capacitor refers to the process of storing electrical energy in the capacitor
by applying a voltage across its terminals. Capacitors are passive electronic components
that consist of two conductive plates separated by an insulating material known as
dielectric. When a voltage is applied across the terminals of a capacitor, it creates an
electric field between the plates.
Charging Process:
1. Initial Discharge (if applicable)
If the capacitor was previously charged and needs to be discharged before
charging again, it should be short-circuited or connected to a resistor to safely discharged
any stored energy.
2. Connection to a Voltage Source
The capacitor is connected to a voltage source, such as a battery or power supply.
One terminal is connected to the positive side of the voltage source, and the other
terminal is connected to the negative side.
3. Voltage Across the Capacitor

95
 When the voltage source is connected, a potential difference (voltage) is
established across the capacitor’s terminals. This voltage causes electrons to accumulate
on one plate (the negatively charged plate) and be drawn away from the other plate (the
positively charged plate). This separation of charge creates an electric field between the
plates.
4. Charging Current
Initially, when the capacitor is uncharged, the current flowing into the capacitor is
at its maximum. As time passes, the voltage across the capacitor gradually increases,
and the charging current decreases.
5. Charging Time Constant
The rate at which the capacitor charges depend on its capacitance (C) and the
resistance (R) in the circuit. The time it takes for the voltage across the capacitor to reach
approximately 63% of its final value is given by the time constant (T), which is calculated
as T = R x C. The time constant determines how quickly or slowly the capacitor charges.
6. Fully Charged Capacitor
Ideally, the capacitor would become fully charged, and the voltage across its
terminals would equal the voltage of the source. When this happens, the charging current
becomes zero, and the capacitor stores the electrical energy in its electric field.
The process of charging a capacitor has various practical applications in
electronics, such as energy storage, filtering, and timing circuits. Capacitors are often
used with resistors and other components to create specific circuit functions.
Time constant (T) is the time needed to store 63% of the supply voltage in the
capacitor or it is equivalent to the first time constant. The capacitor can be fully charged
within five-time constants. Referring to the diagram above, shown are the percentage
increase of the voltage inside the capacitor.

T = RC

96
Where:
R is the resistance in ohms
C Is the capacitance in farad
T is the time constant in second

If the capacitor is not yet

charged, it will need five
times of its time constant to
fully charged it.
Example: R = 1 M and C =
1uF
T = RC = 1x 106 x 1 x 10-6
= 1 sec
The capacitor needs 5T =
5(1) = 5 seconds to be fully
charge

Example No. 1
How long will it take for the capacitor to be fully charged when the timing circuit
has 10 K resistor and 100 uF capacitor? (Assume the capacitor has no stored charge.)
Solution: Solve for the time constant
T = RC
= 10 x 103 x 100 x 10-6
= 1 second
The capacitor should be charged for 5T so it will be fully charged, so
t = 5T = 5(1) = 5 seconds

97
 The equation below is used only for charging process:

Example No. 2
How much capacitor voltage will be stored after charging the capacitor in Example
No. 1 for 3 seconds? The supply voltage is 12 volts, and the capacitor is not yet charged.
Solution:
VC = Vs (1 – e-t/RC)
= 12 (1 – e-3/1)
= 12 (1 – 0.05)
= 11.4 volts

Example No. 3
An uncharged capacitor and a resistor are connected in series. The emf of the
battery is 12 volts, C = 4 uF, and R = 200 k.
Find the following:
a. the time constant of the circuit
b. the maximum charge on the capacitor
c. the voltage in the capacitor after 2 s of charging.
d. the time needed for the capacitor to store 3 volts

98
Solution:
a. T = RC = 200 x 103 x 4 x 10-6
= 0.8 seconds
b. Q = CV
= 4 x 10-6 x 12
= 4.8 x 10-5 coulomb
c. VC = Vs (1 – e-t/RC)
= 12 (1 – e-2/0.8)
= 12 (1 – 0.082)
= 12 x 0.918
= 11.016 volts
d. VC = Vs (1 – e-t/RC)
3 = 12 (1 – e-t/0.8)
3/12 = 1 – e-t/0.8
0.25 – 1 = – e-t/0.8
-0.75 = – e-t/0.8 note: cancel the negative signs
0.75 = e-t/0.8
ln 0.75 = ln (e-t/0.8)
-0.288 = -t/0.8
t = 0.23 seconds

What is discharging?
The discharging of a capacitor refers to the process of releasing the electrical
energy stored in the capacitor’s electrical field. When a charged capacitor is allowed to
discharge, it means that the stored electrical energy is being released and dissipated.
This can happen in several ways:

99
1. Through a Resistor
If a charged capacitor is connected in parallel with a resistor and a switch, closing
the switch allows the capacitor to discharge through the resistor. The voltage across the
capacitor decreases over time, and the energy stored in the electric field is converted into
heat in the resistor. The rate at which the capacitor discharges is determined by the
resistance and capacitance values in an RC circuit.
2. Self-discharge
Capacitors can also naturally lose their charge over time due to internal leakage
currents and dielectric losses, even if they are not connected to an external circuit. This
is called self-discharge.
3. Through an External Circuit
A charged capacitor can be connected to any electrical circuit, and the energy
stored in it will be released as it interacts with the components of that circuit. For example,
if a charged capacitor is connected to a light bulb, the capacitor will discharge through
the bulb, causing it to briefly light up.
The rate of discharge depends on the resistance and capacitance values, as well
as the initial charge voltage. The mathematical relationship that describes the discharge
of a capacitor in an RC circuit is given by the formula:

VC = Vi x e-t/RC

Where:
Vc = voltage across the capacitor at time t measured in volts
Vi = initial voltage across the capacitor measured in volts
t = length of discharging time measured in seconds
R = resistance measured in ohms
C = capacitance measured in farad

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 Discharging capacitors can be useful in various electronic applications, such as
timing circuits, energy storage systems, and power supply circuits, where controlled
release of energy is necessary.

Same as the charging process, the complete discharging process will be five
times the time constant of the RC circuit. You will notice that as the discharging time
increases, the curve is going down, indicating that the voltage inside the capacitor is
gradually decreasing.
Example No. 1
Calculate the time constant for the discharging process of 1M resistor and 2 uF
capacitor.
Solution:
TD = RDCD
= 1 x 106 x2 x 10-6
= 2 seconds

Example No. 2
Referring to Sample No. 1, If the capacitor stored 9 volts, determine the voltage
in the capacitor after discharging it for 5 seconds.
Solution:
VC = Vi x e-t/RC
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 = 9 x e-5/2
= 0.74 volts

Example No. 3
The RC has 100 K resistor, 4 uF capacitor and supply voltage of 15 volts. If the
capacitor is fully charged, how long will it take for its voltage to be 3 volts?
Solution:
VC = Vi x e-t/RC
3 = 15 x e-t/RC
But: T = RC = 100 x 103 x 4 x10-6
= 0.4 s
So: 3 = 15 x e-t/0.4
3/15 = e-t/0.4
0.2 = e-t/0.4
ln 0.2 = -t/0.4
-1.61 = -t/0.4 (cancel the negative signs on both sides of the equation)
t = 0.644 seconds

Total Capacitance in Series and in Parallel:

The equation used in finding the total capacitance in series is using the format of finding
the total resistance in parallel, while the parallel capacitors use the same format as in
total resistance in series. Opposite to that of the resistors in series, the total capacitance
in series provides low values and the total capacitance in parallel connection gives high
values.

102
 TOTAL CAPACITANCE IN SERIES: TOTAL CAPACITANCE IN
PARALLEL:

C1 C2

1µF 5µF
C3 C4
1µF 1µF

CT = C1 C2 CT = C3+ C4
C1+C2
CT = 1 x 5 CT = 1+1 = 2 μF
1+ 5 = 0.83 μF

Factors to be Considered when Buying the Capacitor:

a. Capacitance – The capacitance tells how good a capacitor can store charge. The
relationship of capacitance and voltage can be easily seen in the equation Q = CV
where Q is the amount of charge in coulombs, C is the capacitance in farad and V is
voltage that can be stored in volts, The higher the capacitance, the less voltage the
capacitor can store and vice versa.
b. Voltage Rating – The voltage rating of the capacitor is important to prevent damage in
the device. It should not be exceeded, otherwise, it will explode. The rating should be
higher than the voltage that might be connected to the capacitor.

Link to Video Recording:

(link will be given by the faculty)
Activity:
Assignment No. 8: (to be written in your notebook)
1. Give an industry-based timing application using a capacitor. Explain how it operates.
2. Is it ok to replace the 100 microfarad/16V capacitor with a 100 microfarad/50 V
capacitor? Why?

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3. A timing circuit has 2 microfarad capacitors and 5 kiloohms resistor. If the device
needs to increase the time five times of its original time, how much resistance must be
used to achieve it? (Capacitance is not changed.) 25 kiloohms
4. A timing circuit has 2 microfarad capacitor and 5 kiloohms resistor. How much is its
capacitor voltage after 0.035 seconds, if the capacitor has no initial charge and the
supply voltage is 24 volts? Show your solution.
5. The opening/closing of elevator door uses a timing circuit composed of 1 MΩ resistor
and 2 μF capacitor. What is the effect of changing the value of the capacitance to 0.2
μF?
Assignment Rubrics (5 points)
Criteria Score Excellent Good Poor
Content 2 All the Most of the Some of the
requirements requirements requirements
were were submitted. were
submitted. submitted
Organization 2 The The assignment The
assignment was not assignment
was organized organized but was organized
and neatly neatly but was not
presented. presented. neatly
presented.
Timeliness 1 The The assignment The
assignment was submitted assignment
was submitted more than 2 was submitted
on time. days after the more than 5
deadline. days after the
deadline.

Experiment No. 6: Capacitors

EXPERIMENT 6
CAPACITOR

Objectives:

1. Compare total capacitance, charge and voltage drop for capacitors connected
in series and in parallel.
2. Compute the charge based on the measured voltages.

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Materials Needed:
Two LEDs
Resistors:
2 - 1.0 kΩ (all resistors are ½ watt)
Capacitors:
1 - each: 100 µF, 0.01 µF

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 6.1 Leave both switches open. The light-
emitting diodes (LEDs) and the capacitor are both polarized components- they
must be connected in the correct direction in order to work properly.
S1
R1 LED1

1kΩ S2
Key = Space

Key = Space

V1 C1
R2
12 V 100µF
1kΩ

LED2

Figure 6.1

2. Close 𝑆1 and observe the LEDs. Describe your observation.

3. Open 𝑆1 and close 𝑆2 . What happens?

4. Now connect 𝐶2 in series with 𝐶1 . Open 𝑆2 . Close 𝑆1. Measure the voltage across
each capacitor. Do this quickly to prevent the meter from causing the capacitors to
discharge. Record the voltages and describe your observations.

𝑉1 =________________________ 𝑉2 =___________________________
Observations:

105
 5. Using the measured voltage, compute the charge on each capacitor.

𝑄1 =________________________ 𝑄2 =____________________________
Then open 𝑆1 and close 𝑆2 . Observe the result.

6. Charge the capacitors from series to parallel. Ensure that the capacitors are fully
discharged. Open 𝑆2 and close 𝑆1. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for the parallel connection.

𝑉1 =___________________________ 𝑉2 =___________________________

Observations:

𝑄1 =___________________________ 𝑄2 =__________________________

7. Replace the 12 V dc source with a signal generator. Close both 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 . Set the
signal generator to a square wave set the amplitude to 12 𝑉𝑝𝑝 . Set the frequency
to 10 Hz. Notice the difference in the LED pulses. This demonstrates one of the
principal applications of large capacitors- that of filtering. Explain your
observations.

Conclusions:

Questions:
1. Why did the LEDs flash for a shorter time in step 6 than in steps 4 and 5?

2. What would happen if you added more series capacitance in step 6?

3. (a) What is the total capacitance when a 100.0 µF capacitor is connected in parallel
with a 0.01 µF capacitor?

( b ) If the capacitors are connected in series, what is the total capacitance?

( c ) In the previous series connection, which capacitor has the greater voltage
across it?
106
4. A 3.0 µF capacitor is charged to 100 V. If it is then connected in parallel with a 10
µF capacitor, what voltage will be across the capacitors?

5. Two capacitors labeled A and B, have the same charge, but A has twice the
voltage across it than B. Which capacitor has the greater capacitance? Prove your
answer.

EXPERIMENT RUBRICS (10 POINTS)

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 Lesson 9
Inductors

INTRODUCTION
Inductance is almost the same as the capacitance, the only difference is that
the inductor does not store the energy directly. The voltage is only produced when
the current flowing in the inductor produces the electromagnetic field.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Describe inductance.
2. Classify the types of inductors.

LECTURE DISCUSSION
The current generated in a conductor by a changing magnetic field is
proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic field. This effect is called
INDUCTANCE and is given the symbol
L. It is measured in units called the henry (H) named after the American
Physicist Joseph Henry (1797-1878). One henry is the amount of inductance
required to produce an emf of 1 volt in a conductor when the current in the
conductor changes at the rate of 1 Ampere per second. The Henry is a rather large
unit for use in electronics, with the milli-henry (mH) and micro-henry (µH) being
more common.

Factors Affecting Inductance The amount of

inductance in an inductor is dependent on:
a. The number of turns of wire in the inductor.
b. The material of the core.
c. The shape and size of the core.
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 d. The shape, size and arrangement of the wire making up the coils.

From the equation VL = L di/dt, it tells us that the inductor will only be able to induce
a voltage when alternating current passes thru the inductor material. The higher the
inductance, the higher voltage it can produce. This operating characteristic of the inductor
is opposite of that of the capacitor. In capacitor, the higher the capacitance, the lower
voltage it can store. Usually, inductors use core to increase its inductance. This increase
the size of the device and is the reason why it is seldom used in timing application circuits.

Types of Coils According to Core

a. Air core
b. Iron core
c. Ferrite iron core

Transformer

Transformer is a passive electronic component that transfer electrical energy from

one electrical circuit to another circuit, or multiple circuits. Magnetic flux is produced by
having alternating current flowing in the wire. The bigger the magnetic flux, the higher the
induced voltage. There are two most used transformers in electronics- step-up and step-
down transformers. From the name itself, you will determine the functions of each

109
transformer. Step-down is transferring the higher electrical energy to a lower electrical
energy, i.e. 220 volts to 12 volts, while step-up transformer is the opposite of the other.

b
a

a. Types of transformers
b. Actual pic of c
transformer
c. Transformer module

Instrument transformer- are current and voltage transformation devices that are
used to step down the transmission and distribution line voltages and currents to levels
that can safely operate measuring instruments, protection devices and control relays by
isolating it from the supply voltage.

Single Phase and Three Phase Transformers – Single phase transformers

consist of mainly two windings; one is on primary side and the other on the secondary
side. Three phase transformer consists of three transformers either separate or combined
with one core. The primary and secondary of the transformer can be independently
connected either in star or delta.

Power Transformer- is a static machine used to transforming power from one

circuit to another without changing frequency, usually used in electric power generation
and at distribution stations.

110
 Distribution Transformer – or service transformer is a transformer that provides
the final voltage transformation in the electric power distribution system, stepping down
the voltage used in the distribution lines to the level used by the customer.

Current Transformer- is a transformer used to reduce or multiply an alternating

current.

Potential Transformer- is a transformer used for the transformation of voltage from

a higher value to the lower value.

Time Constant Using Inductors

T = L/R

Where:

T = time constant, second (s)

L = Inductance, Henry (H)
R = resistance, ohms (Ω)

The operation of the timing circuit using inductor is almost the same as the capacitor.
The waveform for charging process is a rise curve just and the discharging has decay
curve, just like the operation shown in the time constant circuit using capacitor.

The percentages are also the same as in the universal time constant graph in
capacitors. For the first time constant it can gain 63% of its supply, 2 nd time constant =
86%, 3rd time constant = 96%, 4th time constant = 98 % and the 5th time constant is almost
100%. It uses also five time constant to have the supply voltage be totally induced in the
inductor.

111
 Vb is the supply voltage.
VR is the voltage in the resistor.
VL is the voltage in the inductor.

TOTAL INDUCTANCE IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

Series LT Parallel LT

L1 L2
5mH 10mH L3 L4
2mH
8mH

LT = L1 + L2 LT = L3 x L 4 / L3 + L4
= 5 + 10 LT = 2 x 8 / 2 + 10

= 15 H LT = 1.6 H

Link to Video Recording ( to be given by the faculty)

112
Activity:
Assignment No. 9: (to be written in your notebook)
1. Compare the total capacitance and total inductance in series.
2. If you need higher inductance, what circuit you must use- series or parallel. Explain
your answer.
3. If the time you need is 10 seconds and the resistance is 100,000 ohms, how much
inductance in mH is needed? 10 mH
4. If the inductance is 250 mH and the resistance is 1000 ohms, how long will it take to
induce a voltage of 86 volts if the circuit is connected to a 100 volts supply. T= 0.75
seconds
5. Using an ohmmeter, how do you check if the conductor is working properly?
Assignment Rubrics (5 points)
Criteria Score Excellent Good Poor
Content 2 All the Most of the Some of the
requirements requirements requirements
were were submitted. were
submitted. submitted
Organization 2 The The assignment The
assignment was not assignment
was organized organized but was organized
and neatly neatly but was not
presented. presented. neatly
presented.
Timeliness 1 The The assignment The
assignment was submitted assignment
was submitted more than 2 was submitted
on time. days after the more than 5
deadline. days after the
deadline.

113
 Lesson 10
Diodes

INTRODUCTION
The previous devices that we have discussed are the passive type. Diode is
under the active devices. Passive devices are components that do not generate
energy but can store or dissipate it. While the active devices are components that
have an ability to electrically control electric charge flow. The different types and
their functions are tackled in this topic. Applications and how they work are also
included.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Enumerate the types of diodes and their functions.
2. Examine the effect of defective diodes in the circuit.

LECTURE DISCUSSION
A diode is a semiconductor device with two terminals, typically referred to as
the anode and the cathode. It primarily functions as an electrical one-way valve,
allowing the flow of current in one direction while blocking it in the opposite
direction. This property makes diodes an essential component in various
electronic circuits and devices.
The diode is constructed by combining two oppositely charged materials- the
P type and N type. These materials are formed by having different impurities
during the doping process. Doping process is the process of adding impurity to
the semiconductor to increase its conductance. The P type material has more
positive carriers called holes while the N type material has more negative carriers
called electrons.
Trivalent impurities are added to the semiconductor material that forms the P
114
type material, while the pentavalent impurities are added to the semiconductor to
form the N type material. When the semiconductor is pure, it is called intrinsic
semiconductor. After doping, the semiconductor becomes an extrinsic
semiconductor.
Below are some impurities used in doping.
Trivalent Impurities Pentavalent Impurities
Aluminum (Al) Phosphorus (P)
Gallium (Ga) Arsenic (As)
Boron (B) Antimony (Sb)
Indium (In) Bismuth (Bi)

Depletion region

The two materials are separated by depletion region and a junction voltage
separates the attraction between the two opposite charges. The average junction
voltage for silicon semiconductor is 0.6 volts while germanium semiconductor has
0.2 volts. In order to turn on the diode, the bias should be forward and the supply
voltage must be higher than the junction voltage.

Characteristics of Diodes
1. Forward Bias:

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 When the anode of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of the
supply voltage and the cathode is connected to the negative terminal of the
supply voltage, there is an appreciable amount of current because the diode has
low resistance in this bias.
2. Reverse Bias
This bias uses the reverse connection of forward bias. The anode of the
diode is attached to the negative terminal while the cathode is at the positive
terminal of the supply voltage. In this bias, the resistance of the diode increases
because the depletion region widens. There is negligible current, and the diode
is considered off or not conducting.
3. Rectification
One of the primary applications of diodes is rectification, where they are
used to convert alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). This is achieved
by using diodes to allow the flow of current only during one half cycle of the AC
waveform, effectively “clipping” the negative half, resulting in a unidirectional flow
of current.
4. Voltage Regulation
Zener diodes are a special type of diode designed to operate in the
reverse-biased breakdown region. They are used as regulator that provides
stable output voltage.
5. Light Emitting Diode (LED)
The Light-Emitting Diode (LED) is a type of diode that emits light when
current flows through them and is commonly used as indicator and in displays.
6. Switching Diodes
Switching diodes can be used as switches in digital logic circuits and signal
conditioning circuits. They allow or block the flow of current depending on the
biasing conditions, which is essential for signal processing and switching
applications.

116
 7. Protection
Diodes are often employed for protection purposes in circuits. For example,
flyback diodes are used to protect against voltage spikes (inductive kickback) in
relays and inductors, and Schottky diodes are used for high-speed switching and
protection in various applications.

Special Types of Diodes

a. tunnel diodes – exploit quantum tunneling effects are used in high-
frequency oscillators.
b. varactor diodes – variable capacitance diodes used in tuning and
frequency modulation applications.
c. photodiodes – detect light and convert it into an electrical current,
commonly used in optical sensors and detectors.

Common types of Diodes

1. Rectifier diode - converts ac to dc when forward biased

2. Zener diode – works as a regulator (providing constant output voltage) when

reverse biased.

3. LED diode – emits light when forward biased.

117
How to check using an ohmmeter whether the diode is working properly:

A forward biased diode will allow current flow so the resistance of the diode is
less when connected in this way, if it is an LED, it will emit light. If it is connected
in reverse bias, its resistance should be high. With these readings, you can say,
that the diode is working properly.
Troubles in Diodes:
1. open diode – resistances in both cases becomes high
2. shorted diode – resistances in both cases becomes zero

Link to Video Recording (to be given by the faculty)

Activity:
Assignment No. 10: (to be written in your notebook)
1. Using an ohmmeter, how do you check whether a rectifier diode is working properly?

118
2. Differentiate the operation of forward and reverse biased diode.
3. Explain how a diode allows flow of current in one direction only.
4. What are the factors to be considered when buying rectifier diodes?
5. Give a sample of a power supply circuit using rectifier diodes and explain how it works.

Assignment Rubrics (5 points)

Criteria Score Excellent Good Poor
Content 2 All the Most of the Some of the
requirements requirements requirements
were were submitted. were
submitted. submitted
Organization 2 The The assignment The
assignment was not assignment
was organized organized but was organized
and neatly neatly but was not
presented. presented. neatly
presented.
Timeliness 1 The The assignment The
assignment was submitted assignment
was submitted more than 2 was submitted
on time. days after the more than 5
deadline. days after the
deadline.

Lesson 11
Power Supply

INTRODUCTION
All the previous topics that we have taken are necessary to understand the
basic principles of power supply. Power supply is the most important of all circuits.
Without this circuit, nothing will function. The circuit of a basic power supply is
composed of almost all the devices that we discussed here- transformer, rectifier
diode, capacitor, resistor, etc.
119
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Enumerate the types of diodes and their functions.
2. Examine the effect of defective diodes in the circuit.

LECTURE DISCUSSION
A power supply is a circuit that supplies power to at least one electric load.
Normally we use this term to rectifier power supply. A circuit that usually uses a
transformer to supply alternating current and rectified to produce the required
direct current outputs. The dc output is then filtered to remove the ac component
and regulated to have a constant output voltage. If the circuit does not have a
regulator, it is called unregulated power supply.

Block Diagram of Regulated Power Supply

An unregulated power supply provides a rippled-DC voltage, meaning it has

inconsistent output, while the regulated power supply uses a regulator that gives
a clean, stable DC voltage without noise and variations.

Functions of each block:

• Transformer increases the secondary voltage, meaning from a lower primary
voltage to higher secondary voltage. For this example:
Turns ratio = Np/Ns = Vp/Vs
1/3 = 115/Vs
120
 Vs = 345 volts
• Rectifier converts the alternating current voltage into direct current voltage. It
uses the rectifier diodes known for operating only in one direction.
• Filter smoothens the pulsating dc output of the rectifier circuit. It uses a capacitor
that provides the voltage to the gaps between the cycles of the AC voltage waveform.
• Regulator removes the noise and the ripple to provide the stable output.

1. Full-wave Power supply – uses two diodes.

During the positive half cycle, A will be + while B will be -, C is always neutral since
it is the common part of the circuit. D1 will be conducted because it is forward-
biased. D2 is off since it is reverse- biased. When the cycle changes, the two
121
diodes will reverse their conditions, because A will be – and B becomes +. You will
notice that there is an output in each half cycle.

2. Bridge-type rectifier

D1 & D2
D3 & D4

In the positive half-cycle, D1 & D2 are the diodes that are working because both
are forward-biased and D3 & D4 are off because they are reversed-biased. While
in the negative half-cycle, D1 & D2 now become off, while D3 & D4 will allow
current flow.

Link to Video Recording (to be given by the faculty)

Activity:
Design a bridge type power supply with the following specifications:
a. Vp = 220 – 240 volts

122
 b. Vs = 12 volts
c. Current < 1 ampere
d. Variable output voltage: 3 – 15 volts
e. Ripple voltage < 100 mV
Submit the following:

1. Report (template will be given after midterm exam)

2. Prototype (for checking only)

123
Reference List

TEXTBOOKS:
[1] Schultz, M.E., Grob’s Basic Electronics, California: MC Graw Hill, 2016.
[2] 3G Learning FZ LLC., Basic Electronics, Florida: 3G Learning, 2015.
[3] Schultz, M.E., Grob’s Basic Electronics, California: MC Graw Hill, 9th edition. 2003.

OTHER REFERENCES

1] Westcott, et al., Basic Electronics: Theory and Practice, 2015. (e-book)

124