Environmental issues in the Philippines

Today, environmental problems in the Philippines include pollution, mining and logging,
deforestation, threats to environmental activists, dynamite fishing, landslides, coastal erosion,
biodiversity loss, extinction, global warming and climate change.[1][2][3] Due to the paucity of
extant documents, a complete history of land use in the archipelago remains unwritten. However,
relevant data shows destructive land use increased significantly in the eighteenth century when
Spanish colonialism enhanced its extraction of the archipelago's resources for the early modern
global market.[4] The Philippines is projected to be one of the most vulnerable countries to the
impacts of climate change,[5] which would exacerbate weather extremes. As the Philippines lies
on the Pacific Ring of Fire, it is prone to natural disasters, like earthquakes, typhoons, and
volcanic eruptions.[6][7] In 2021, the Philippines ranked the fourth most affected country from
"weather-related loss events", partly due to the close proximity of major infrastructure and
residential areas to the coast and unreliable government support.[8][9][10] One of the most
devastating typhoons to hit the archipelago was Typhoon Haiyan, known locally as Yolanda, in
2013 that killed 6,300 people and left 28,689 injured.[11] Congress passed the Clean Air Act of
1999, the Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004, the Climate Change Act of 2009 to address
environmental issues. The country is also a signatory to the Paris Agreement. However, research
has found that outside of cities, the general public doesn't feel equally informed.[12][8]
Environmental activists and land defenders, consisting mostly of Indigenous communities who
have been attempting to bring attention to the environmental issues in the country have been
met with violence or murder. As a result, the Philippines has been ranked one of the most
dangerous places in the world for environmental activists. It also has one of the highest
percentages of climate change denialists in the world.[13][2]

Broad Environmental Issues

Climate change

Both floods and droughts are

predicted to increase.
Climate change is having serious impacts in the Philippines such as increased frequency and
severity of natural disasters, sea level rise, extreme rainfall, resource shortages, and
environmental degradation.[14] All of these impacts together have greatly affected the
Philippines' agriculture, water, infrastructure, human health, and coastal ecosystems and they are
projected to continue having devastating damages to the economy and society of the
Philippines.[14]

According to the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), the Philippines
is one of the most disaster-prone countries in the world.[15] The archipelago is situated along the
Pacific Ocean's typhoon belt, leaving the country vulnerable to around 20 typhoons each year, a
quarter of which are destructive.[16] The December 2021 typhoon known colloquially as Typhoon
Odette caused around a billion dollars (₱51.8 billion) in infrastructure and agricultural damages
and displaced about 630,000 people. The United Nations estimated that Typhoon Odette
impacted the livelihoods of 13 million people, destroying their homes and leaving them without
adequate food or water supplies.[17] More tragically, the physical and economic repercussions of
Typhoon Odette led to the death of over 400 people as of December 2021.[17]

In addition to the Philippines' close proximity to the Pacific Ocean's typhoon belt, the Philippines
is also located within the "Pacific Ring of Fire" which makes the country prone to recurrent
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.[16] Compounding these issues, the impacts of climate
change, such as accelerated sea level rise, exacerbate the state's high susceptibility to natural
disasters, like flooding and landslides.[18] Aside from geography, climate change impacts regions
with a history of colonization more intensely than regions without a history of colonization.[19]
Colonized regions experience the repercussions of climate change most jarringly "because of
their high dependence on natural resources, their geographical and climatic conditions and their
limited capacity to effectively adapt to a changing climate."[19] Since low-income countries have a
history of colonialism and resource exploitation, their environment lacks the diversity necessary
to prevail against natural disasters.[20] A lack of biodiversity reduces the resilience of a specific
region, leaving them more susceptible to natural disasters and the effects of climate change.
With its history of Spanish colonization, the Philippines is not environmentally nor economically
equipped to overcome issues it is currently dealing with, such as natural disasters and climate
change. This inability to recover exacerbates the problem, creating a cycle of environmental and
economic devastation in the country.[20]

Air pollution

Air pollution causes significant health and economic problems in the Philippines.[21] An
estimated 66,000 deaths annually have been directly linked to air pollution.[22]

The Department of Environment and Natural Resources is tasked with implementing the Clean
Air Act of 1999 to monitor and prevent air pollution in the country.[23]
Deforestation

Over the course of the twentieth century, the forest cover of the Philippines dropped from 70
percent down to 20 percent.[24] In total, 46 species are endangered, and 4 have been eradicated
completely. Only 3.2 percent of total rainforest is left. Based on an analysis of land use pattern
maps and a road map, an estimated 9.8 million acres of forests were lost in the Philippines from
1934 to 1988.[25] As of 2015, the country's forest cover has been reduced to just 7 million
hectares.[26]

According to IBON Foundation, deforestation is caused by logging, mining, and land conversion
for corporate agriculture, cash crops, real estate, and infrastructure.[26] Illegal logging occurs in
the Philippines[27] and intensifies flood damage in some areas.[28]

According to scholar Jessica Mathews, short-sighted policies by the Filipino government have
contributed to the high rate of deforestation:[29]

The government regularly granted logging concessions of less than ten

years. Since it takes 30–35 years for a second-growth forest to mature,
loggers had no incentive to replant. Compounding the error, flat
royalties encouraged the loggers to remove only the most valuable
species. A horrendous 40 percent of the harvestable lumber never left
the forests but, having been damaged in the logging, rotted or was
burned in place. The unsurprising result of these and related policies is
that out of 17 million hectares of closed forests that flourished early in
the century only 1.2 million remain today.

The Philippines had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.91/10, ranking it
91st globally out of 172 countries.[30]
Water pollution

The Pasig River in Manila, one of the world's most

polluted rivers.[31]

Although water resources have become scarce in some regions and seasons, the Philippines as
a whole has more than enough surface and groundwater. However, neglecting to have a coherent
environmental policy has led to the contamination of 58% of the groundwater in the
Philippines.[32] The main source of pollution is untreated domestic and industrial wastewater.[31]
Only one third of Philippine river systems are considered suitable for public water supply.[32]

It is estimated that in 2025, water availability will be marginal in most major cities and in 8 of the
19 major river basins.[33] Besides severe health concerns, water pollution also leads to problems
in the fishing and tourism industries.[34] The national government recognized the problem and
since 2004 has sought to introduce sustainable water resources development management (see
below).[35]

Only 10% of the total population is connected to a sewer network.[36] The vast majority uses flush
toilets connected to septic tanks. Since sludge treatment and disposal facilities are rare, most
effluents are discharged into the ecosystem without treatment.[37] According to the Asian
Development Bank, the Pasig River is one of the world's most polluted rivers, running through the
capital city of Manila.[31] In March 2008, Manila Water announced that a wastewater treatment
plant will be constructed in Taguig.[38] The first Philippine constructed wetland serving about 700
households was completed in 2006 in a peri-urban area of Bayawan which has been used to
resettle families that lived along the coast in informal settlements and had no access to safe
water supply and sanitation facilities.[39]

According to a report in 2003, the Pasig River is one of the most polluted rivers in the world with
150 tons of domestic waste and 75 tons of industrial waste dumped daily.[40]
Destructive fishing

General

Commercial fishing is causing environmental problems, exhausting food supply, and threatening
livelihoods in the Philippines and around the world.[41] The Philippines has a strong fishing
culture due to its historically productive and diverse marine ecosystems. In 2018, 927,617 people
were officially reported as being involved in "capture fishing", and fish contributes to 50% of a
Filipinos protein consumption.[42][43] This fish reliance has contributed to the current overfishing
of 70% of Philippine fishing grounds and about 40% of fish caught being done illegally.[43][44]
Coastal communities and local fishers organized themselves to implement sustainable fishing
practices and protect fishing grounds from commercial fishing fleets that are destroying marine
habitats.[41]

COVID-19 lockdowns seem to have allowed an increase in illegal fishing. Karagatan Patrol ships
using VIIRS (visible infrared imaging lure lights) have detected an increase in apparent
commercial fishing vessels from 3,602 in February 2020 (before COVID-19 lockdowns) to 5,950
in March, which went back down to 1,666 in May when lockdown eased.[45] These vessels were
detected in waters that only allow small artisanal fishermen using passive fishing methods, due
to the area being a spawning ground for most fish species.[45]

Dynamite and cyanide fishing

Dynamite fishing, cyanide fishing, and bottom trawling are fishing methods that cause extensive
damage to coral reefs.[46] These practices are major threats to Philippine marine life and
ecosystems.[46]

Dynamite fishing, also known as blast fishing and fish bombing, was outlawed in 1932.[47] It is a
practice of throwing bombs into the water to kill and stun the fish caught in the blast, and then
collecting the fish. The process kills both fish eggs and fish too young to sell. It also destroys the
surrounding habitat, including coral reefs in the area. This damage is estimated to have cause
$99.2 billion in losses a year, according to a study by Rhodora Azanza of the University of the
Philippines.[44] As such, average fish yields have been reported to be decreasing. Jimely Flores, a
senior marine scientist for Oceana, described the situation saying, "In some dynamited areas, if
you dive you don't see any fish at all."[48]

Commercial fishing vessels have used cyanide to stun and capture coral reef fish in the
Philippines.[46]
Solid waste

According to Metro Manila Development Authority (MMDA), the country produces an average of
41 kilotons of garbage daily with almost 10 ktons/day coming from Metro Manila alone.[49] As of
May 2024, there are 296 garbage disposal sites in the Philippines.[50]

While most local government units establish a Material Recovery Facility (MRF), implement
segregation at the source, and collect and process all recyclable and biodegradable materials,
most of the municipal solid wastes are either disposed in the dump sites or openly burned, which
further worsen the quality of heavy polluted air in the cities.[51]

Republic Act No. 9003 or the "Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000" provides for a
solid waste management program. It orders the adoption of sanitary landfills and the closure of
dangerous open dump sites.[50]

Plastic waste

According to World Bank calculations, the Philippines generates 2.7 million tons of plastic waste
every year. Around 20% of the plastic waste makes its way to the sea.[52] One estimate ranks the
Philippines as the world's third largest producer of oceanic plastic waste.[53] The Pasig River
deposits 72,000 tons of plastic into the sea annually, mostly during monsoons, placing it among
the world's top 10 rivers that bring plastic waste to the sea.[54]

Rising sea levels

One of the problems of environmental issues is about the sea level rise. Sea level rise is an
increase in the level of the world's oceans due to the effects of global warming. Burning fossil
fuels is one of the causes of global warming because it releases carbon dioxide and other heat-
trapping gasses into the atmosphere. The oceans then absorb the majority of this heat. Sea
levels are rising as a result of climate change. This rise is likely to accelerate over the coming
century and continue for centuries. The impacts of sea level rise include permanent flooding
(inundation) of low-lying areas, and increased frequency, extent and depth of tidal inundation.
Sea level rise will also cause most sandy beaches to recede (where beaches will move further
inland) and erode.

The Philippines is experiencing sea-level rise, which is threatening more than 40% of the
population that live in coastal areas. The rising sea levels are causing increased flooding,
erosion, and salinization of freshwater resources. These impacts have significant economic,
social, and environmental consequences, including the displacement of people and destruction
of coastal infrastructure. To address the impacts of climate change, the Philippine government
has taken steps to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the changing climate. The
country has committed to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions by 75% by 2030,[55] which will
require significant changes in the energy and transportation sectors. The government is also
implementing measures to increase the resilience of the population to the impacts of climate
change. These measures include the construction of flood control infrastructure, disaster risk
reduction policies, and programs to promote sustainable agriculture.

In conclusion, climate change is a significant issue in the Philippines that is already causing
significant economic, social, and environmental impacts. The country is particularly vulnerable to
the impacts of climate change due to its location and its high population density. The
government has taken steps to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the changing
climate, but much more needs to be done to reduce the impacts of climate change on the
country and its people. The Philippines must continue to prioritize climate action to build a more
sustainable and resilient future.[56]

Environmentalism

Anti-nuclear movement

The anti-nuclear movement in the Philippines aimed to stop the construction of nuclear power
facilities and terminate the presence of American military bases, which were believed to house
nuclear weapons on Philippine soil. Anti-nuclear demonstrations were led by groups such as the
Nuclear-Free Philippines Coalition (NFPC) and No Nukes Philippines. Coalitions argued that
American bases in the Philippines perpetuated nuclear threats from other opponent nations of
the United States, and that nuclear testing was transpiring in these bases. The nuclear threats
and the bases also represented foreign intervention from the United States, which was a staunch
issue among nationalists.[57]

A focal point for protests in the late 1970s and 1980s was the proposed Bataan Nuclear Power
Plant (BNPP), which was built by ousted President Ferdinand Marcos but never operated. The
NFPC was formed by Senator Lorenzo M. Tañada, considered the father of the anti-nuclear
movement in the Philippines, to stop the opening of the power plant, which it succeeded in
pursuing. The Bataan nuclear project was criticized for being a potential threat to public health
and for risks associated with the plant being located in an earthquake-prone location on the
Bataan Peninsula. The power plant was also less than 180 kilometers away from Metro Manila,
thus implicating multiple economic centers and regional sectors.[58]

The anti-nuclear movement campaigned to remove foreign military bases in the Philippines. In
1991, the Philippine Senate voted to reject a new bases agreement treaty with the US, after which
Tañada stood up from his wheelchair and was greeted with applause. The US left behind tons of
toxic waste after its withdrawal and anti-nuclear campaigners provides assistance for the bases'
cleanup.[58] The former bases are now profitable tourist sites in the Philippines, such as the Subic
Naval Bay in Subic and the Clark Air Base in Clark, Pampanga, which is a legacy of the anti-
nuclear movement.[59]

The movement continues to face challenges as attempts have been made to open the
abandoned Bataan Nuclear Power Plant. In 2017 Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power Co. Ltd. (KEPCO)
and Russia's Rosatom offered to negotiate to rehabilitate the plant. Opposition to the nuclear
plant immediately responded and quickly raised concerns on long-term disposal of highly toxic
waste, safety and health issues, reliance on imported uranium, the high cost of
decommissioning, and other adverse effects.[60][61][62]

Climate movement

Activists in the Philippines have organized activities to call for government action to address
climate change. They have protested government policies that have allowed reclamation projects
and mining activities and the killing of activists.[63][64]

Activists have called for higher emission cuts in the Philippines and in developed countries.[63]

Youth Strike for Climate

Philippine youth activists have participated in the global Youth Strike for Climate by organizing
protest actions in different parts of the country.[63][65] Youth activists have also protested the
building of coal energy plants and their funding by multinational banks such as Standard
Chartered.[66]

Threats to environmentalists

The Philippines is sometimes considered the most dangerous country for environmental
activists.[67][68] According to environmental watchdog Global Witness, at least 30 land and
environmental defenders were killed in the Philippines in 2018, many of whom were in conflict
with private business groups.[69] Kalikasan People's Network for the Environment recorded 46
deaths in 2019.[70] The group said activists have also been harassed, vilified, "red-tagged," and
labeled as terrorists or "enemies of the state."[70][69][71]

Journalists reporting on the environment have also been threatened or killed. UNESCO director
general Audrey Azoulay stated that the "continued targeting of journalists reporting on
environmental issues represents a particularly concerning trend for freedom of expression."[72]

Environmental groups have asked Congress to pass a Human Rights Defenders Bill to help
protect activists and their families.[70]
Government policy

Environmental protection

The Department of Environment and Natural Resources is responsible for creating, supporting,
and enforcing policies on environmental protection by the Philippine government. The
department is also tasked with ensuring sustainable management of the Philippines' natural
resources.[73] The Philippine Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) is responsible for
environmental impact assessments, pollution prevention and control, as well as enforcing six
main environmental laws in the Philippines.[74] The Philippines has also signed into several
international environmental treaties,[75] with CITES protecting species from overexploitation due
to international trade, and ratified the Paris Agreement.

Sustainable development

The Philippines formulated the Sustainable Development Strategy to tackle environmental issues
and address the need to sustain development and growth.[76] The Sustainable Development
Strategy proposes policies for assimilating environmental considerations in administration,
apposite pricing of natural resources, conservation of biodiversity, rehabilitation of ecosystems,
control of population growth and human resources development, inducing growth in rural areas,
promotion of environmental education, strengthening citizens' participation, and promoting small
to medium-sized enterprises and sustainable agricultural and forestry practices.[77] One of the
initiatives signed in part of the strategy was the 1992 Earth Summit.

Upon signing the 1992 Earth Summit,[78] the government of Philippines has been constantly
looking into many different initiatives to improve the environmental aspects of the country.

Writ of Kalikasan

A Writ of Kalikasan is a legal remedy under Philippine law that provides protection of one's
constitutional right to a healthy environment, as outlined in Section 16, Article II of the Philippine
Constitution, which states that the "state shall protect and advance the right of the people to a
balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature."[79] Kalikasan is
a Filipino word for "nature".[79]

The writ is comparable to the writ of amparo and the writ of habeas corpus.[79] In contrast, this
writ protects one's right for a healthy environment rather than constitutional rights.[80] The Writ of
Kalikasan originated in the Philippines, whereas the two aforementioned writs have roots in
European and Latin American law.[79]
Clean Air Act

Republic Act No. 8749, also known as the Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999, mandates the
government to create and implement a national program for preventing and managing air
pollution. The law also tasks the government to monitor air quality throughout the country.[23]
The Department of Environment and Natural Resources issued Administrative Order No. 81 in
2000 outlining its implementing rules and regulations for the Clean Air Act. It also issued in 2004
Administrative Order No. 2004-26 amending Rule XIX of DENR Administrative Order No. 2000-
81.[23]

See also

Ecoregions in the Philippines

List of protected areas of the Philippines

Species:

Wildlife of the Philippines

List of threatened species of the Philippines

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Further reading

Broad, Robin; Cavanagh, John (1994). Plundering Paradise: The Struggle for the Environment in
the Philippines (https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780520089211) . Berkeley: University of
California Press. ISBN 0-520-08921-9.

Magno, Francisco A. (1993). "The Growth of Philippine Environmentalism" (http://www.journal

s.upd.edu.ph/index.php/kasarinlan/article/view/928/927) . Kasarinlan: Philippine Journal of
Third World Studies. 9 (1): 7–18.