CHAPTER 1: AIRFLOW IN MINES

1.1 INTRODUCTION

With the exception of shafts greater than 500 m in vertical extent, changes in air density
along individual airways may be ignored for most practical ventilation planning in areas
that are actively ventilated. Most measurements in airflow in mines are based on volume
(m3) that passes through a given cross-section of a duct or airway in unit time (1 second).
The units of flow, Q, are in m3/s. When density variations are taken into account it is
preferable to work in mass flow, the mass of air (kg) passing through a cross-section per
second. The unit for mass flow, M, are kg/s.

The relationship between volume flow and mass flow follows from definition of density,
ρ.

ρ = mass/volume kg/m3

and
mass ⋅ flow M kg s
ρ= ⋅ = . .. . 3 !
volume ⋅ flow Q s m

giving
M = Qρ kg/s

Provided all systems are in a steady state and there are no inflows or outflows of air or
other gases between the two ends, then

M = Qρ = constant kg/s Continuity equation

A common method of measuring volume flow is to determine the mean velocity of air, µ,
over a given cross-section and multiply by the area of that cross-section, A
 ! m3
Q = µA m2 = µA
! s
Then the continuity equation becomes

M = ρ µA = constant kg/s

Assuming a constant density ρ, then

Q = µ A = const. m3/s

This shows for steady-state conditions in a continuous airway, the velocity of the air
varies inversely with cross-sectional area.

1.2 THE ATKINSON EQUATION AND THE SQUARE LAW

In seeking to quantify the relationships that govern the behavior of airflows in mines,
Atkinson utilized earlier work of hydraulic engineers and, in particular, the Chezy –
Darcy relationship of the form expressed in the equation below for pressure drop, p, as

!"# µ2
p=fL !
ρ! Pa
2

where p = frictional pressure drop, (pa)

ρ = air density
u = air velocity
f = coefficient of friction
L = length of channel(m)
per = wetted perimeter(m)
The mines of the time were relatively shallow, allowing the air density, ρ , to be regarded
as constant. Atkinson was able to collate the ‘constants’ in the equation into a single
factor.
!!
k= kg/m3
!
giving
per 2
p. = .kL µ Pa
A

This has become known as Atkinson’s equation and k as the Atkinson friction factor.
Note that it is a function of air density and has the dimensions of density.
Atkinson’s equation may be written in terms of airflow, Q = uA, giving

per 2
p = kL 3
Q Pa
A

Now for any given airway, the length, L, perimeter, per, and cross-sectional area, A, are
all known. Ignoring its dependence on density, the friction factor varies only with the
roughness of the airway lining for fully developed turbulence. Hence we may collect all
of those variables into a single characteristic number, R, for that airway.

per Ns 2 kg
R = kL 3
..... 8
or 7
A m m

giving
p = RQ2 Pa

This is known as the square law of mine ventilation and is probably the single most
widely used relationship in subsurface ventilation engineering.
The parameter R is called the Atkinson resistance of the airway and, as shown by the
square law, is the factor that governs the amount of air flow, Q that will pass when an
airway is subjected to any given pressure differential, p.
The simplicity of the square law has been achieved at the expense of precision and
clarity. For example, the resistance of an airway should, ideally, vary only with the
geometry and roughness of that airway. However, the above equations show that R
depends also on the density of the air. Hence, any variations in the temperature and/ or
pressure of the air in an airway will produce a change in the Atkinson resistance of that
airway.
Secondly, the frictional pressure drop, p, depends on the air density as well as the
geometry of the airway for any given airflow Q. This fact is not explicit in the
conventional statement of the square law as the density term is hidden within the
definition of Atkinson resistance, R.

1.3 AIR WAY RESISTANCE

The concept of airway resistance is of major importance in subsurface ventilation

engineering. The simple form of the square law
p = RQ2
shows the resistance to be a constant of proportionality between frictional pressure drop,
p, in a given airway and the square of the airflow, Q, passing through it at a specified
value of air density.

The cost of passing any given airflow through an airway varies directly with the
resistance of that airway. Hence, as the total operating cost of a complete network is the
sum of the individual airway costs, it is important that we become familiar with the
factors that influence airway resistance.
These are: -

1.3.1 Size of Airway

The cross-sectional area open for flow is the dominant factor in governing airway
resistance. Driving an airway at only half its design diameter will result in the resistance
being 25 or 32 times greater. Hence, for any required airflow, the cost of passing that
ventilation through the airway will also increase by a factor of 32. It is clear that, when
sizing an underground opening that will form part of a main ventilation route, the
resistance and ventilation operating costs must be taken into account.
 1.3.2 Shape of Airway

If all other parameters remain constant, including cross-sectional area, A, the resistance
of an airway varies with respect to its shape factor. The planar figure having the
minimum possible shape factor is a circle. All other shapes have a greater shape factor
than this value. For this reason, shape factors are usually normalized with respect to a
circle by dividing by 3.5449 and are then quoted as relative shape factor (RSF) in
tables.

1.3.3 Airway Lining

Airway resistance is proportional to the Atkinson friction factor, k and hence is also
directly proportional to the more fundamental coefficient of friction, f. The latter
depends only on the roughness of the airway lining for fully developed turbulent flow.

1.3.4 Air Density

The Atkinson resistance, R, as used in the square law, p = RQ2, depends on the friction
factor, k. However, it has been shown that k, itself, depends on the density of the air. It
follows that the Atkinson resistance also varies with the density of the air.

1.3.5 Shock Losses

Whenever the airflow is required to change direction, additional vortices will be initiated.
The propagation of those large-scale eddies consumes mechanical energy and the
resistance of the airway may increase significantly. This occurs at bends, junctions,
changes in cross-section, obstructions, regulators and at points of entry or exit from the
system.

The effects of shock losses remain the most uncertain of all the factors that affect airway
resistance. This is because fairly minor modifications in geometry can cause significant
changes in the initiation of vortices and, hence, the airway resistance. Analytical
techniques may be employed for simple and well-defined geometries. For the more
complex situations that arise in practice, scale models may be employed to investigate the
flow patterns and shock losses.

1.4 MINE SHAFTS

In mine ventilation planning exercises, the airways that create the greatest difficulties in
survey observations or in assessing predicted resistance are vertical and inclined shafts.
Shafts are quite different in their airflow characteristics to all other subsurface openings,
not only because of the higher air velocities that may be involved, but also because of the
aerodynamic effects of ropes, guide rails, buntons, pipes, cables, other shaft fittings, the
fraction of cross-section filled by the largest conveyance (coefficient of fill, Cf) and the
relatively high velocity of shaft conveyances. Despite such difficulties, it is important to
achieve acceptable accuracy in the estimation of the resistance of ventilation shafts, in
most cases, the total airflow supplied underground is greater than the combined effect of
the rest of the underground layout. In a deep room and pillar mine, the shafts may
account for as much as 90% of the mine total resistance. Coupled with a high airflow, Q,
the frictional pressure drop, p, will absorb a significant part of the fan total pressure. It
follows that the operational cost of airflow (proportional to p x Q) is usually greater in
ventilation shafts than in any other airway.

At the stage of conceptual design, shaft resistances are normally estimated with the aid of
published lists of friction (k) factor (normally in table form) that make allowance for
shaft fittings. For an advanced design, a more detailed and accurate analysis that
incorporates both theoretical and empirical factors may be employed.

The resistance to airflow, R, offered by a mine shaft is composed of the effects of four
identifiable components:
1. The shaft walls,

2. The shaft fittings (buntons, pipes etc)

3. The conveyances (skips or cages) and

 4. Insets, loading and unloading points.

1.4.1 Shaft Walls

The components of resistance offered by the shaft walls, Rtw, may be determined from
equations of airflow and using a friction factor, k, or coefficient of friction, f.

1.4.2 Shaft Fitting

It is the permanent equipment in a shaft, particularly cross-members (buntons) that

account, more than any other factor, for the large variation in k values reported for mine
shafts.

1.4.3 Longitudinal Fittings

These include ropes, guide rails, pipes and cables, situated longitudinally in the shaft and
parallel to the direction of airflow. Such fittings add very little to the coefficient of
friction and, indeed, may help to reduce swirl. If no correction is made for longitudinal
fittings in the calculation of cross-sectional area, then their effect may be approximated
during preliminary design by increasing the k factor. However, measurements on model
shafts have actually shown a decrease in the true coefficient of friction when guide rails
and pipes areas are added. It is, therefore, better to account for longitudinal fittings
simply by subtracting their cross-sectional area from the full shaft area to give the ‘free
area’ available for airflow. Similarly, the rubbing surface is calculated from the sum of
the perimeters of the shaft and the longitudinal fittings

1.4.4 Buntons

The term ‘bunton’ is used here to mean any cross-member in the shaft located
perpendicular to the direction of airflow. The usual purpose of buntons is to provide
support for longitudinal fittings. The resistance offered by buntons is often dominant.
 1.4.5 Form Drag and Resistance of Buntons

While the resistance offered by the shaft walls and longitudinal fittings arises from skin
friction (shear) drag, through boundary layers close to the surface, the kinetic energy of
the air causes the pressure on the projected area of cross-members facing the airflow to
be higher than that on the downstream surfaces. This produces an inertial or ‘form’ drug
on the button. Furthermore, the breakaway of boundary layers from the sides of trailing
edges causes a series of vortices to be propagated downstream from the bunton. The
mechanical energy dissipated in the formation and maintenance of these vortices is
reflected by a significant increase in the shaft resistance

INTERFERENCE FACTOR
The preceding subsection assumed that the buntons were independent of each other, i.e.
that each wake of turbulent eddies caused by a bunton dies out before reaching the next
bunton. Unless the buntons are streamlined or are far apart, this is unlikely to be the case
in practice. Furthermore, the drag force may be somewhat less than linear with respect to
the number of buntons and the shaft walls or guide rails. For these reasons, an
‘interference factor’, F, is introduced into airflow equations giving a reduced value of
resistance for buntons:

1.5 RESISTANCE OF A STARTIONARY CONVEYANCE

The main factors that govern the resistance of a stationary cage or skip in a mine shaft are
as follows.

1. The percentage of the free area in a cross-section of the shaft occupied by the
conveyance. This is sometimes termed the ‘coeficient of fill’. CF.

2. The area and shape of a plan view of the conveyance and, to a lesser degree, its
vertical height.

The parameters of secondary practical importance include the shape of the shaft and the
extent to which the cage is totally enclosed.
An analysis of the resistances offered by cages or skips commences by considering the
conveyance to be stationary within the shaft with a free (approaching) air velocity of ua (
m/s). The conveyance is treated as an obstruction giving rise to a frictional pressure drop
(shock loss) of X velocity heads.

1.6 DYNAMIC EFFECTS OF A MOVING CONVEYANCE

In addition to the presence of a conveyance in a shaft, its motion will also influence the
frictional pressure drop and effective resistance of the shaft. Furthermore, in systems in
which two conveyances pass in the shaft, their stability of motion will depend on the
velocities of the airflow and conveyances within the shaft cross-section, their shape and
the coefficient of fill.

When two synchronized skips or cages pass, they will normally do so at mid-shaft and at
the maximum hoist velocity. The coefficient of fill will, momentarily, be increased
(doubled if the two cages have the same plan area). There will be a very short-lived peak
of pressure drop across the passing point. However, the inertia of the columns of air
above and below that point, coupled with the compressibility of the air, dampens out that
peak quickly and effectively.

More important is the effect of passing on the stability of the conveyances themselves.
They pass at a relative velocity of twice maximum hoisting speed, close to each other and
usually without any continuous intervening barrier. Two mechanisms then influence the
stability of the cages. First, thin boundary layers of air will exist on the surfaces of the
conveyances and moving at the same velocity. Hence, there will be a very steep velocity
gradient in the space between passing conveyances. Shear resistance (skin friction drag)
will apply a braking action on the inner sides of the conveyances and produce a tendency
for the skips or cages to turn in towards each other. Secondly, the mean absolute velocity
in the gap between the passing cages is unlikely to equal that surrounding the rest of the
cages. There exists a variation in static pressure and, hence applied force on the four
sides of each conveyance (the venture effect). This again, will result in a tendency for
lateral movement.
Passengers in conveyances will be conscious not only of the pressure pulse when the
cages pass, but also of the lateral vibrations caused by the aerodynamic effects. The
sideways motion can be controlled in practice by the use of rigid guide rails or, if rope
guides are employed, by using a tensioned tail rope beneath the cages passing around a
shaft-bottom pulley.

The aerodynamics of moving conveyances are more complex than for free bodies
because of the proximity of the shaft walls. The total drag on the conveyance will reach a
maximum when the vehicle is moving at its highest speed against the airflow. The
apparent frictional pressure drop and resistance of the shaft will also vary and reach a
maximum value at this same time. The opposite is also true. The drag, apparent
frictional pressure drop, and apparent resistance of the shaft will reach a minimum when
the conveyance is moving at maximum speed in the same direction as the airflow. The
amplitude of the cyclic variation depends on the resistance of the stationary cage (which
in turn depends on the coefficient to fill and other factors as described in the previous
subsection), and the respective velocities of the airflow and the cage.

1.7 ENTRY AND EXIT LOSSES

In badly designed installations or for shallow shafts, the shock losses that occur at shaft
stations and points of air entry and exit may be greater than those due to the shaft itself.
Such losses are, again, normally quoted on the basis of X velocity heads, using the
velocity in the free area of the shaft.

1.8 SHAFT WALLS

A major shaft utilized for both hoisting and ventilation must often serve for the complete
life of the underground facility. Large savings in ventilation costs can be achieved by
designing the shaft for low aerodynamic resistance.
Modern concrete lining of shafts closely approaches an aerodynamically smooth surface
and little will be gained by giving a special smooth finish to these walls. However, if
tubbing lining is employed, the wall resistance will increase by a factor of two or more.

1.9 BUNTONS

A great deal can be done to reduce the resistance of buntons or other cross-members in a
mine shaft. First, thought should be given to eliminating them or reducing their number
in the design. Second, the shape of the buntons should be considered. An aerofoil
section skin constructed around a girder is the ideal configuration. A circular cross-
section has a coefficient of drag some 60% of that for a square.

1.10 LONGITUDINAL FITTINGS

Ladderways and platforms are common in the shafts of metal mines. These produce high
shock losses and should be avoided in main ventilation shafts. If it is necessary to
include such encumbrances, then it is preferable to compartmentalize them behind a
smooth wall partition. Ropes, guides, pipes and cables reduce the free area available for
airflow and should be taken into account in sizing the shaft; however, they have little
effect on the true coefficient of friction.

1.11 CAGES AND SKIPS

The resistance of a cage or skip increases rapidly when it occupies more than 30% of the
shaft cross-section. The plan area of a conveyance should be as small as possible,
consistent with its required hoisting duties. Furthermore, a long narrow cage or skip
offers less resistance than a square cage of the same plan area.

1.12 INTERSECTIONS AND LOADING/UNLOADING STATIONS

For shafts that are used for both hoisting and ventilation it is preferable to employ air
bypasses at the main loading and unloading stations. At shaft bottom stations, the main
airstream may be diverted into one (or two) airways intersecting the shaft some 10 to 20
m above or below the loading station. Similarly, at the shaft top, the main airflow should
enter or exit the shaft 10 to 20m below the surface loading point. If a main fan is to be
employed on the shaft, then it will be situated in the bypass (fan drift) and an airlock
becomes necessary at the shaft top. If no main fan is required at that location then a high
volume, low pressure fan may be utilized simply to overcome the resistance of the fan
drift and to ensure that the shaft top remains free from high air velocities.

The advantages for such air bypasses are as follows.

1. They avoid personnel being exposed to high air velocities and turbulence at
loading/unloading points.

2. They reduce dust problems in rock-hoisting shafts.

3. They eliminate the high shock losses that occur when skips or conveyances are
stationary at a heavily ventilated inset.

At the intersections between shafts and fan drifts or other main airways, the entrance
should be rounded and sharp corners avoided. If air bypasses are not employed, then the
shaft should be enlarged and/or the underground inset heightened to ensure that there
remains on adequate free-flow area with a conveyance stationary at that location.

1.13 AIR POWER

The mechanical energy within an airstream is downgraded by frictional effects to the less
useful heat energy. This can be quantified as the term F, the work done against friction in
terms of joules per kilogram of air.

The measurable consequence of F is a frictional pressure drop, p,

where,
p
F= J/kg
ρ
where ρ = mean density of air
The airpower of a moving airstream is a measure of its mechanical energy content.
Airpower may be supplied to an airflow by a fan or other ventilating motivators but will
diminish when the airflow suffers a reduction in mechanical energy through the frictional
effects of viscous action and turbulence. The airpower loss, APL, may be quantified as
J kg
APL = FM
kg s
where,
M = Qρ is the mass flowrate (kg/s)
Then APL = FQρ
However
F = P/ρ
giving
APL = Q p W

As both p and Q are measurable parameters, this gives a simple and very useful way of
expressing how much ventilating power is dissipated in a given airway. Substituting for
p from the rational form of the square law
p = Rt Q2
gives
APL = Rt ρ Q3 W

This revealing relationship highlights the fact that the power dissipated in any given
airway and, hence, the cost of ventilating that airway depend upon

1. The geometry and roughness of the airway,

2. The prevailing mean air density, and
3. The cube of the airflow.

The rate at which mechanical energy is delivered to an airstream by a fan impeller may
also be written as the approximation:
 Air power delivered = pftQ W

Where
pft is the increase in total pressure across the fan.
For fan pressure exceeding 2.5kPa, the compressibility of the air should be taken into
account.