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Source: MECHANISMS AND MECHANICAL DEVICES SOURCEBOOK
CHAPTER 17
COMPUTER-AIDED
DESIGN CONCEPTS
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COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN CONCEPTS
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN
Computer Aided Design (CAD) is a computer-based technology software packages provide professional results when run on off-
that allows a designer to draw and label the engineering details of the-shelf personal computers. The many options available in
a product or project electronically on a computer screen while commercial CAD software include.
relegating drawing reproduction to a printer or X-Y plotter. It
also permits designers in different locations to collaborate in the • 2D drafting
design process via a computer network and permits the drawing • 3D wireframe and surface modeling
to be stored digitally in computer memory for ready reference. • 3D solid modeling
CAD has done for engineering graphics what the word processor
did for writing. The introduction of CAD in the late 1960s • 3D feature-based solid modeling
changed the traditional method of drafting forever by relieving • 3D hybrid surface and solid modeling
the designer of the tedious and time-consuming tasks of manual
drawing from scratch, inking, and dimensioning on a conven- Two-Dimensional Drafting
tional drawing board.
While CAD offers many benefits to designers or engineers Two-dimensional drafting software for mechanical design is
never before possible, it does not relieve them of the requirement focused on drawing and dimensioning traditional engineering
for extensive technical training and wide background knowledge drawings. This CAD software was readily accepted by engineers,
of drawing standards and practice if professional work is to be designers, and draftspersons with many years of experience.
accomplished. Moreover, in making the transition from the draw- They felt comfortable with it because it automated their custom-
ing board to the CAD workstation, the designer must spend the ary design changes, provided a way to make design changes
time and make the effort to master the complexities of the spe- quickly, and also permitted them to reuse their CAD data for new
cific CAD software systems in use, particularly how to make the layouts.
most effective use of the icons that appear on the screen. A typical 2D CAD software package includes a complete
The discovery of the principles of 3D isometric and perspec- library of geometric entities. It can also support curves, splines,
tive drawing in the Middle Ages resulted in a more realistic and and polylines as well as define hatching patterns and place hatch-
accurate portrayal of objects than 2D drawings, and they con- ing within complex boundaries. Other features include the ability
veyed at a glance more information about that object, but making to perform associative hatching and provide complete dimen-
a 3D drawing manually was then and is still more difficult and sioning. Some 2D packages can also generate bills of materials.
time-consuming, calling for a higher level of drawing skill. 2D drawing and detailing software packages are based on ANSI,
Another transition is required for the designer moving up from ISO, DIN, and JIS drafting standards.
2D to 3D drawing, contouring, and shading. In a 2D CAD drawing, an object must be described by multi-
The D in CAD stands for design, but CAD in its present state ple 2D views, generally three or more, to reveal profile and inter-
is still essentially “computer-aided drawing” because the user, nal geometry from specific viewpoints. Each view of the object
not the computer, must do the designing. Most commercial CAD is created independently from other views. However, 2D views
programs permit lettering, callouts, and the entry of notes and
parts lists, and some even offer the capability for calculating such
physical properties as volume, weight, and center of gravity if the
drawing meets certain baseline criteria. Meanwhile, CAD soft-
ware developers are busy adding more automated features to
their systems to move them closer to being true design programs
and more user-friendly. For example, CAD techniques now
available can perform analysis and simulation of the design as
well as generate manufacturing instructions. These features are
being integrated with the code for modeling the form and struc-
ture of the design.
In its early days, CAD required at least the computing power
of a minicomputer and the available CAD software was largely
application specific and limited in capability. CAD systems were
neither practical nor affordable for most design offices and inde-
pendent consultants. As custom software became more sophisti-
cated and costly, even more powerful workstations were required
to support them, raising the cost of entry into CAD even higher.
Fortunately, with the rapid increases in the speed and power of
microprocessors and memories, desktop personal computers rap-
idly began to close the gap with workstations even as their prices
fell. Before long, high-end PCs become acceptable low-cost
CAD platforms. When commercial CAD software producers
addressed that market sector with lower-cost but highly effective
software packages, their sales surged.
PCs that include high-speed microprocessors, Windows oper-
ating systems, and sufficient RAM and hard-drive capacity can
now run software that rivals the most advanced custom Unix- Robotic hand assembly with fingers 3D wireframe drawing.
based products of a few years ago. Now both 2D and 3D CAD Courtesy of SolidWorks Corporation
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COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN CONCEPTS
The unification of multiple 2D views into a single 3D view for
modeling a complex machine design with many components per-
mits the data for the entire machine to be stored and managed in
a single wireframe file rather than many separate files. Also,
model properties such as color, line style, and line width can be
controlled independently to make component parts more visually
distinctive.
The construction of a wireframe structure is the first step in
the preparation of a 3D surface model. Many commercial CAD
software packages include surface modeling with wireframe
capability. The designer can then use available surface-modeling
tools to apply a “skin” over the wireframework to convert it to a
surface model whose exterior shape depends on the geometry of
the wireframe.
One major advantage of surface modeling is its ability to pro-
vide the user with visual feedback. A wireframe model does not
readily show any gaps, protrusions, and other defects. By making
use of dynamic rotation features as well as shading, the designer
is better able to evaluate the model. Accurate 2D views can also
be generated from the surface model data for detailing purposes.
Surface models can also be used to generate tool paths for
numerically controlled (NC) machining. Computer-aided manu-
facturing (CAM) applications require accurate surface geometry
for the manufacture of mechanical products.
Yet another application for surface modeling is its use in the
preparation of photorealistic graphics of the end product. This
Robotic hand assembly with fingers 3D solid drawing. Courtesy of capability is especially valued in consumer product design,
SolidWorks Corporation where graphics stress the aesthetics of the model rather than its
precision.
Some wireframe software also includes data translators,
typically contain many visible and hidden lines, dimensions, and libraries of machine design elements and icons, and 2D drafting
other detailing features. Unless careful checks of the finished and detailing capability, which support design collaboration and
drawing are made, mistakes in drawing or dimensioning intricate compatibility among CAD, CAM, and computer-aided engineer-
details can be overlooked. These can lead to costly problems ing (CAE) applications. Designers and engineers can store and
downstream in the product design cycle. Also, when a change is use data accumulated during the design process. This data per-
made, each view must be individually updated. One way to avoid mits product manufacturers with compatible software to receive
this problem (or lessen the probability that errors will go unde- 2D and 3D wireframe data from other CAD systems.
tected) is to migrate upward to a 3D CAD system. Among the features being offered in commercial wireframe
software are:
Three-Dimensional Wireframe and • Basic dimensioning, dual dimensioning, balloon notes,
Surface Modeling datums, and section lines.
A 3D drawing provides more visual impact than a 2D drawing • Automated geometric dimensioning and tolerancing
because it portrays the subject more realistically and its value (GD&T).
does not depend on the viewer’s ability to read and interpret the • Symbol creation, including those for weld and surface finish,
multiple drawings in a 2D layout. Of more importance to the with real-time edit or move capability and leaders.
designer or engineer, the 3D presentation consolidates important • A library of symbols for sheet metal, welding, electrical pip-
information about a design, making it easier and faster to detect ing, fluid power, and flow chart applications.
design flaws. Typically a 3D CAD model can be created with
fewer steps than are required to produce a 2D CAD layout. Data translators provide an effective and efficient means for
Moreover, the data generated in producing a 3D model can be transferring information from the source CAD design station to
used to generate a 2D CAD layout, and this information can be outside contract design offices, manufacturing plants, or engi-
preserved throughout the product design cycle. In addition, 3D neering analysis consultants, job shops, and product development
models can be created in the orthographic or perspective modes services. These include IGES, DXF, DWG, STL, CADL, and
and rotated to any position in 3D space. VRML.
The wireframe model, the simplest of the 3D presentations, is
useful for most mechanical design work and might be all that is Three-Dimensional Solid Modeling
needed for many applications where 3D solid modeling is not
required. It is the easiest 3D system to migrate to when making CAD solid-modeling programs can perform many more func-
the transition from 2D to 3D drawing. A wireframe model is ade- tions than simple 3D wireframe modelers. These programs are
quate for illustrating new concepts, and it can also be used to used to form models that are solid objects rather than simple 3D
build on existing wireframe designs to create models of working line drawings. Because these models are represented as solids,
assemblies. they are the source of data that permits the physical properties of
Wireframe models can be quickly edited during the concept the parts to be calculated.
phase of the design without having to maintain complex solid- Some solid-modeling software packages provide fundamental
face relationships or parametric constraints. In wireframe model- analysis features. With the assignment of density values for a vari-
ing only edge information is stored, so data files can be signifi- ety of materials to the solid model, such vital statistics as strength
cantly smaller than for other 3D modeling techniques. This can and weight can be determined. Mass properties such as area, vol-
increase productivity and conserve available computer memory. ume, moment of inertia, and center of gravity can be calculated
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COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN CONCEPTS
for regularly and irregularly shaped parts. Finite element analy- 3D feature-based solid modeling allows the designer to create
sis software permits the designer to investigate stress, kinemat- such features as holes, fillets, chamfers, bosses, and pockets, and
ics, and other factors useful in optimizing a part or component in combine them with specific edges and faces of the model. If a
an assembly. Also, solid models can provide the basic data need- design change causes the edges or faces to move, the features can
ed for rapid prototyping using stereolithography, and can be use- be regenerated so that they move with the changes to keep their
ful in CAM software programs. original relationships.
Most CAD solid-model software includes a library of primi- However, to use this system effectively, the designer must
tive 3D shapes such as rectangular prisms, spheres, cylinders, and make the right dimensioning choices when developing these
cones. Using Boolean operations for forming unions, subtractions, models, because if the features are not correctly referenced, they
and intersections, these components can be added, subtracted, inter- could end up the wrong location when the model is regenerated.
sected, and sectioned to form complex 3D assemblies. Shading For example, a feature that is positioned from the edge of an
can be used to make the solid model easier for the viewers to com-
prehend. Precise 2D standard, isometric, and auxiliary views as
well as cross sections can be extracted from the solid modeling
data, and the cross sections can be cross-hatched.
Three-Dimensional Feature-Based Solid Modeling
3D feature-based solid modeling starts with one or more wire-
frame profiles. It creates a solid model by extruding, sweeping,
revolving, or skinning these profiles. Boolean operations can also
be used on the profiles as well as the solids generated from these
profiles. Solids can also be created by combining surfaces,
including those with complex shapes. For example, this tech-
nique can be used to model streamlined shapes such as those of
a ship’s hull, racing-car’s body, or aircraft.
Milling machine 3D wireframe drawing. Courtesy of SolidWorks
Corporation
Robotic gripper assembly 3D wireframe drawing. Courtesy of
SolidWorks Corporation
Robotic gripper assembly 3D solid drawing. Courtesy of Milling machine 3D solid drawing. Courtesy of SolidWorks
SolidWorks Corporation Corporation
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COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN CONCEPTS
Piping adapter assembly 3D wireframe drawing. Courtesy of
SolidWorks Corporation
Machine subassembly 3D wireframe drawing. Courtesy of
SolidWorks Corporation
designer to make changes as required to create the desired model.
This software uses stored historical records that have recorded
object rather than from its center might no longer be centered the steps in producing the model so that if the parameters of the
when the model is regenerated. The way to avoid this is to add model are changed, the software refers to the stored history and
constraints to the model that will keep the feature at the center of repeats the sequence of operations to create a new model for
the face. regeneration. Parametric modeling can also be used in trial-and-
The key benefit of the parametric feature of solid modeling is error operations to determine the optimum size of a component
that it provides a method for facilitating change. It imposes best suited for an application, either from an engineering or aes-
dimensional constraints on the model that permit the design to thetic viewpoint, simply by adjusting the parameters and regen-
meet specific requirements for size and shape. This software per- erating a new model.
mits the use of constraint equations that govern relationships Parametric modeling features will also allow other methods of
between parameters. If some parameters remain constant or a relating entities. Design features can, for example, be located at
specific parameter depends on the values of others, these rela- the origin of curves, at the end of lines or arcs, at vertices, or at
tionships will be maintained throughout the design process. This the midpoints of lines and faces, and they can also be located at
form of modeling is useful if the design is restricted by space a specified distance or at the end of a vector from these points.
allowed for the end product or if its parts such as pipes or wiring When the model is regenerated, these relationships will be main-
must mate precisely with existing pipes or conduits. tained. Some software systems also allow geometric constraints
Thus, in a parametric model, each entity, such as a line or arc between features. These can mandate that the features be paral-
in a wireframe, or fillet, is constrained by dimensional parame- lel, tangent, or perpendicular.
ters. For example, in the model of a rectangular object, these Some parametric modeling features of software combine
parameters can control its geometric properties such as the freeform solid modeling, parametric solid modeling, surface
length, width, and height. The parametric feature allows the modeling, and wireframe modeling to produce true hybrid mod-
els. Its features typically include hidden line removal, associative
layouts, photorealistic rendering, attribute masking, and level
management.
Clutch assembly wireframe drawing. Courtesy of SolidWorks Firehose adapter assembly 3D wireframe drawing. Courtesy of
Corporation SolidWorks Corporation
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COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN CONCEPTS
Three-Dimensional Hybrid Surface function: A task in a CAD program that can be completed by
and Solid Modeling issuing a set of commands.
GD&T: An automated geometric, dimensioning, and tolerancing
Some modeling techniques are more efficient that others. For feature of CAD software.
example, some are better for surfacing the more complex shapes as GIS: An abbreviation for Geographic Information System.
well as organic and freeform shapes. Consequently, commercial IGES: An abbreviation for International Graphics Exchange
software producers offer 3D hybrid surface and solid-modeling Specification, a standard format or translator for transferring
suites that integrate 2D drafting and 3D wireframe with 3D surface CAD data between different programs.
and 3D solid modeling into a single CAD package. Included in ISO: An abbreviation for International Standards Organization.
these packages might also be software for photorealistic rendering linear extrusion: A 3D technique that projects 2D into 3D
and data translators to transport all types of data from the compo- shapes along a linear path.
nent parts of the package to other CAD or CAM software. MCAD: An abbreviation for mechanical CAD.
menu: A set of modeling functions or commands that are dis-
played on the computer screen. Options can be selected from
Glossary of Commonly Used CAD Terms the menu by a pointing device such as a mouse.
object snaps: A method for indicating point locations on exist-
absolute coordinates: Distances measured from a fixed refer- ing drawings as references.
ence point, such as the origin, on the computer screen. origin point: The 0,0 location in the coordinate system.
ANSI: An abbreviation for the American National Standards parametric modeling: CAD software that links the 3D drawing
Institute. on the computer screen with data that sets dimensional and
associative dimensions: A method of dimensioning in CAD positional constraints.
software that automatically updates dimension values when polar coordinates: A coordinate system that locates points with
dimension size is changed. an angle and radial distance from the origin, considered to be
Boolean modeling: A CAD 3D modeling technique that permits the center of a sphere.
the user to add or subtract 3D shapes from one model to polyline: A string of lines that can contain many connected line
another. segments.
Cartesian coordinates: A rectangular system for locating points primitives: The basic elements of a graphics display such as
in a drawing area in which the origin point is the 0,0 location points, lines, curves, polygons, and alphanumeric characters.
and X represents length, Y width, and Z height. The surfaces prototype drawing: A master drawing or template that includes
between them can be designated as the X–Z, X–Y, and Y–Z preset computer defaults so that it can be reused in other
planes. applications.
composite drawing: A drawing containing multiple drawings in radial extrusion: A 3D technique for projecting 2D into 3D
the form of CAD layers. shapes along a circular path.
DXF: An abbreviation for Data Exchange Format, a standard spline: A flexible curve that can be drawn to connect a series of
format or translator for transferring data describing CAD points in a smooth shape.
drawings between different CAD programs. STL: An abbreviation for Solid Transfer Language, files created
FEM: An acronym for Finite Element Method for CAD struc- by a CAD system for use in rapid prototyping (RP).
tural design. tangent: A line in contact with the circumference of a circle that
FTD: An abbreviation for File Transfer Protocol for upload and is at right angles to a line drawn between the contact point and
download of files to the Internet. the center of the circle.
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