COMMUNICATION SKILLS

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION SKILLS.

INTRODUCTION

Effective communication is very essential for management and the organization as a whole to
successfully perform its functions and duties.

COURSE OBJECTIVES

 To enable students understand the meaning of communication and how it relates to other
management functions.
 To enable students use properly all communication methods and tools.
 To enable students improve on their basic communication skills.

Defining Communication

Communication is the act of conveying information between individuals for the purpose of
creating a shared understanding and meaning. The word “communication” comes from the Latin
word “communis,” meaning “to share,” and includes verbal, written, non-verbal and electronic
means of human interaction.

Communication is a process of transmitting and receiving messages from one person to another
through a system that is mutually understandable.

It can also be defined as a process of exchanging information between persons through a

common system of symbols, signs and behavior.

Organisations cannot operate without communication. Communication can take various forms
but all forms involve the transfer of information from one party to the other. In order for the
transfer of information to qualify as communication, the recipients must understand the meaning
of the information transferred to them. If the recipients do not understand the meaning of the
information conveyed to them, communication has not taken place.

Communication is the life source or blood of organisations because organisations involve people. People
cannot interact with each other without communication. In the absence of communication, everything
would grind to a halt or come to a standstill.

Effective Communication is a process where a message is received and understood by the

receiver in the manner that the sender intended it to be. Effective Communication is significant
for managers in the organizations so as to perform the basic functions of management, i.e.,

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Planning, Organizing, Leading, Staffing, Motivating and Controlling. Communication helps

managers to perform their jobs and responsibilities. Communication serves as a foundation for
planning. All the essential information must be communicated to the managers who in-turn must
communicate the plans so as to implement them. Organizing also requires effective
communication with others about their job task. Similarly leaders as managers must
communicate effectively with their subordinates so as to achieve the team goals. Controlling is
not possible without written and oral communication.

For communication to be effective both the sender and the receiver of the message must have a
common meaning for the message exchanged.

Skills

This is the ability of doing something competently and perfectly. Communication skills can be
learnt and improved upon constantly in order to achieve effective communication.

Communication skills include the following;

 Writing skills
 Listening skills
 Speaking or talking skills
 Reading skills

Importance of communication in organizations

(1) It unifies people in an organization and this helps to achieve the set objectives of an
organization. With communication organisation members come together and share ideas
which enable unity and achievement of organisation objectives.
(2) Verbal communication can be used as a tool for settling down conflicts and
misunderstandings amongst organization members. This helps to achieve peace and
harmony in an organization.
(3) It is through communication that member’s behaviors can be maintained and regulated in
an organization. This is achieved through designing rules and regulations and ethical
code of conductin an organization.
(4) It is used as a tool for decision making and planning. This can be achieved through
meetings, idea generation process, consultation etc.
(5) It used as a tool during the process of establishing and implementing organizational
goals.
(6) It links together various departments and sections of the organization and integrates all
managerial functions.
(7) Communication links the internal management to the outside stakeholders of
organization. This is done through establishment of a good public relations policy.

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(8) Communication can be used as a strategy for organization growth. This is achieved
through continuous publicity and advertisement of goods and services provided by
organization. In this case therefore communication creates and widens the market of the
organization products.
(9) Communication is a vital tool used during recruitment process in the organization.
Recruitment begins with advertising vacant positions, receiving applications, examining
and screening applications, conducting interviews if applicable, appointing and accepting
positions. In this case therefore it is through communication that the organization is
provided with the needed labor force.
(10) Communication prepares organizational members for a change. Organizations today
operates in a competitive and changing environment and such changes can only be
adopted through proper communication.
(11) Communication facilitates leadership in an organization. This is done through proper
designing of the organization chart that describes centers and directions of authority.
(12) Communication facilitates motivation of employees and this result into increased
productivity. This is achieved by designing job promotion policy and procedures and also
involving members in decision making.
(13) Communication aids production of goods and services in an organization. Material
inputs and production equipments are supplied in the organization through the use proper
communication such as purchase orders, requisition and requests.

Sample Question “studying business communication skills is wastage of time” said john a CBA
student. As a student of business communication skills, comment on the above statement.

Question two “without effective communication, organization activities must fail”. Discuss the
above statement.

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

This is defined as communication between two or more people and involves the transfer of
information (or message) from one person to the other(s). The person transferring the
information is called the sender or transmitter. The person receiving the message is known as the
receiver. The transmitter will need to send the information in a format that the receiver(s) will
understand. Converting the information into a format that the receiver will understand is known
as Encoding.

Messages can be encoded into a variety of formats that is, oral, written or visual. After encoding
the message is transferred via a medium called a channel, for example a letter, fax, phone call, or
e-mail. After transference the information will need to be interpreted by the receiver. This
process of interpretation is known as decoding. Finally the receiver will send a message back to

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the transmitter confirming whether the information sent has been understood or not. This back
check is known as feedback.

Most experts on organizations, management and leadership, assert that effective communications is the
foundation for effectiveness in any type of organization.

COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Communication process involves the sender, the message, channel of transmission and the
receiver. The message is conceived by sender and developed into a perfect message. A perfect
message is transmitted through a selected channel and received by a receiver.
The receiver decodes the message and interprets it in order to get the meaning. The receiver
then provides a feed-back to the sender in order to complete the communication process. The
communication process can be illustrated by using communication process model or cycle.

Communication process model (cycle)

NOISE

SENDER CONCEPTION OF ENCODING CHANNEL OF

THE MESSAGE TRANSMISSION

FEED BACK INTERPRETATION DECODING RECEIVER

NOISE

Aspects /components /units of communication process

1. Sender

This is a person who initiates the communication and is the starting point in the
commutation process.

2. Conception of the message

This is a process where the sender gets an idea, meditates upon it and lastly develops it
into a message. At this stage the sender develops questions like what to communicate?
What is the purpose of commutating? Who is the targeted receiver?etc

3. Encoding

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This is a process of selecting communication language suitable for the nature of the
message and the prevailing situation. At this stage, the sander may use verbal, written or
non-verbal languages that can suitably be understood by the receiver.

4. Channel of transmission

This is a process which includes selecting suitable means to be used in conveying the
message i.e. if the message is inform of verbal language, channel of communication can
be face to face conversation, telephone communication, etc.

5. Receiver

This is a person to whom the message is sent to by the sender. The receiver must be ready
for the massage in order to give it enough attention, understand it well and provide a
suitable feedback.

6. Decoding

This is a process where the receiver gets the message from the codes in which it was
encoded by the sender. At this stage the receiver may get the elementary meaning of the
message.

7. Interpretation

This is a process where the receiver analyses the message and get a deeper meaning of
the message.

8. Feed back

This is where the receiver reports back to the sender in order to complete the
communication process.

However, for communication to be effective and properly completed, it must be free from
noise. Noise is any disturbance or interruption that hinders free flow of communication
from the sender to the receiver or from the receiver to the sender.

METHODS OF COMMUNICATION (TYPES)

The main methods of communication include verbal or oral communication, written

communication and non-verbal communication.

(1) verbal communication

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This is a form of communication in spoken words. Verbal communication is most important in

organization and should be used properly and improved upon on a continuous basis.

Importance /advantages of verbal communication

 Verbal communication is direct in nature and therefore the chances of distorting the
message are minimized.
 Verbal communication saves time since it is direct in nature.
 It is less costly compared to written communication therefore it is most affordable to
most users.
 It enables the receiver to seek clarity and modification in case of unclear communication.
This enables the receiver to get more detailed explanations and meaning.
 Verbal communication promotes personal contacts which creates friendship in
organization.
 It provides immediate response or feedback hence helping proper execution of
organization activities.

 There is high level of understanding and transparency in oral communication as it is

interpersonal.
 There is no element of rigidity in oral communication. There is flexibility for allowing
changes in the decisions previously taken.
 Oral communication is best in case of problem resolution. The conflicts, disputes and
many issues/differences can be put to an end by talking them over.
 Oral communication is an essential for teamwork and group energy.
 Oral communication promotes a receptive and encouraging morale among organizational
employees.
 Oral communication can be best used to transfer private and confidential information or
matter.

Challenges /disadvantages / limitations of verbal communication

 Spontaneous responses associated with verbal communication may not be carefully

thought of and a wrong feedback may be transmitted.
 Sometime verbal communication may be confusing and different meanings may be
attached to it due to the way or style of speaking and facial expressions.
 Verbal communication may take a lot of time especially when matters are to be discussed
in depth especially in meetings and long speeches. It can also take time where many
people are involved in the communication.
 In some cases, verbal communication does not provide permanent evidence especially
when face to face communication methods are used.

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 Relying only on oral communication may not be sufficient as business communication is

formal and very organized.
 Oral communication is less authentic than written communication as they are informal
and not as organized as written communication.
 It requires attentiveness and great receptivity on part of the receivers/audience.
 Oral communication (such as speeches) is not frequently used as legal records except in
investigation work.

Methods /tools of verbal communication

These are channels which can be used to convey a spoken word and these include the following

 Face to face conversation

This is a direct spoken word between two or more persons through face to face channels.
This form of communication requires persons share a communication language, having
good relationship, to be near each other and practice effective listening.

 Meeting
This is a gathering of two or more persons to share information about particular issue
modes to have decision making. However, meeting squishes a lot of time and proper
planning for them should be cashed out.
 Public speeches /presentations

This is a conversation targeting people in general without being limited to a particular

group.

 Verbal interviews

This is an interaction between two parties to share information and accomplish a pre –
determined purpose. Verbal interviews require both parties to share a common goal.

 Broad casts

This is communication inform of public announcements and communication addressed to

stakeholders of a particular organization through public media such as radio, television,
etc.

 Joint consultation

This is a discussion between the representatives of employers and employees. This is a

tool of management where managers consult workers in matters concerning their welfare
and organization at large.

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 Telephone communication

This is a spoken word through telephone receivers or cables. Telephone communication

is more central in organization to day due to various advantages associated with it.

Principles /management /techniques of telephone communication

Telephone communication to be successful, the following steps must be observed

(a) Before calling

 The caller should determine the objective of the call or the reason why the
message should be conveyed. This helps the caller to use relevant words or
statements in order to achieve the call objective.
 Target receiver
The caller should determine the receiver of the message in advance before calling.
This helps the caller to plan for the message when considering the receiver in
mind.
 The caller should have the right telephone or contact number of the receiver in
order to avoid time wasting and costs calling wrong person(s).
 Determine and knowing the result of the call. The caller should make the message
clear, brief and straight forward inorder to be understood by the receiver and
provide a suitable feedback.
 Selecting a conducive and quiet environment. The caller should not be disrupted
once the number of the receiver is dialed. The caller should be in a place which is
noise free before calling the receiver.
 The caller should prepare the main points to be discussed with the receiver before
calling. This saves time and call charges.
 A caller should select the right time of making a call. When calling overseas or
other counties, the time zone of the receiver’s country or region should be
considered.

(b) During the call

 The caller should identify the organization, section and his or her name or job title.
This enables the receiver to quickly locate or know the details of the caller.
 The caller should inquire from the receiver whether it’s right time to talk to the
receiver or not. This is done to create a conducive environment of discussing with the
receiver.
 The caller should not speak too fast and should avoid complex accent. In this case the
caller should be polite and create a good relationship with the receiver.
 The callers should present the discussion clearly and logically (systematically).

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 When speaking on the telephone, the caller should smile because smiling changes
facial expressions and this changes the voice tone. It is important to note that people
get to know our personality through voice tone.
 The callers should know when to call back in case of a need.

(C) After the Call

 The caller should analyze the information received from the receiver and establish
whether the call objective is achieved or not.
 The caller should make a summary of the points discussed during the call and take
action.

Answering a telephone call

The following steps are considered before and during telephone conversation

 Pick up the telephone by the third ring and in case of call answering machines they
should be programmed to pick calls at the 3rd ring. This is done to save time of the caller.
 The receiver should be prepared for the call by listening attentively and noting down the
main points where necessary.
 The receiver should ask for clearity and explanations from the caller in order to
understand the message and provide the suitable feedback.
 The telephone greeting should be simple, brief and professional.
 The receiver should not turn down the phone before the caller does so. This is a sign of
respect to the caller and interest in the communication.
 The receiver should thank the caller for calling and should encourage him or her to call
back in case of a need.

Written communication

This is communication by a printed or written word.

It is communication inform of business letters, business reports, minutes, written rules and
regulation etc

Written communication is more official and effective in an organization therefore it should be

planned well and prepared carefully in order to be successful.

Advantages /importance of written communication

 It is permanent in nature and therefore provides a record for future reference.

 It can be used to enhance business image to the external community especially where
business magazines and brochures are prepared and published.Such materials contain
information about the organization goods and services.

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 Written communication can be used as a legal defense in courts of law.

 Written communication is a suitable method to transmit lengthy and statistical data
(information) compared to verbal communication. In this case, information in form of
tables, charts, diagram, calculations and figures can be represented well.
 Written communication saves time especially when persons are to be contacted at the
same time.
 It can be revised , edited for accuracy in order to prepare a final perfect copy
 Written communication appears formal (official) and authoritative in nature therefore it is
commonly used during giving instructions, procedures for carrying out various activities
in an organization.
 Written communication enables the receiver to take time in reviewing the message and
interprets it before providing a feed back.
 It can be used during recruitment process in organizations. Recruitment process requires
formal procedures and therefore written communication is suitable.
 It can be used during the marketing process of goods and services provided by
organization. This is done where written adverts are prepared and printed.
 Written communication helps in laying down apparent principles, policies and rules for
running of an organization.
 It assists in proper delegation of responsibilities. While in case of oral communication, it
is impossible to fix and delegate responsibilities on the grounds of speech as it can be
taken back by the speaker or he may refuse to acknowledge.
 Written communication is more precise and explicit.
 Effective written communication develops and enhances an organization’s image.

Disadvantages /challenges of written communication

 In some case written communication does not provide immediate feedback and this can be
a source of frustration in business matters or situations that require urgent attention or
response.
 Written messages consumes a lot of time to be prepared well, especially where detailed
information is to be presented or communicated.
 Written communication requires writing skills and reading skills therefore not suitable for
illiterates. In addition it’s not good for the blind therefore it is discriminative the nature.
 Written communication is expensive in terms of cost and time compared to other methods.
This method requires stationary and other writing materials which are costly.
 Written communication can easily be misinterpreted by a receiver since it does not give
chance for the receiver to ask for explanation or clarity compared to verbal
communication.

Tools /methods of written communication

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1) Business letters

A letter is written or printed information addressed to a particular person or organization.

Letters is a formal means of communication used in organizations.

2) Business reports

A report is defined as an objective, impartial and planned presentation of facts to one or more
persons for a specific business purpose. Reports are used frequently in formal organizations.

3) Notice

This is a document prepared by organization to inform members fromwithin or outside the

organization about a particular issue.

4) Memo

It’s a document used internally to communicate various issues to only internal members of
organization.

5) Minutes

This is a written record of the events, discussion or proceedings that has taken place during a
formal meeting.

6) Agenda

This is a document containing list of items to be discussed at the meeting. Members at the
meeting follow the agenda during their discussion.

7) Written rules and regulations

This is a document containing or having the code of conduct which organization members should
observe. Rules and regulations are prepared to regulate member’s behaviors.

Others tools include

Business manuals Brochures

Journals Magazines

Posters Bill boards and banners, etc

Sign posts

Non Verbal communication

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This is communication in form of wordless messages. It is communication by human behaviors

and actions which convey a message. Human actions or behaviors should have a common
meaning attached to them by both the sender and the receiver. Non Verbal message are sent
frequently especially during interpersonal communication.

Advantages of Non –Verbal Communication

1. Non –verbal communication is stronger than verbal messages, as the saying that “actions
speak louder than words”. In this case non-verbal communication is more reliable.

2. Non – verbal communication is used to confirm or to add a meaning to a spoken word,for

example saying thank you with the smile.

3. It provides appropriate physical feedback to the sender of the message. This can be inform of
facial expressions or gestures.

4. It can be used to observe order especially where large gatherings of persons are sharing
information.

5. It creates a desired impression or climate for effective communication. For example smiling
can imply that there is friendly relationship between the sender and the receiver.

6. Non-verbal communication favors both the deaf and the mute therefore it is not discriminative
in nature.

7. Non- verbal communication saves time since it’s not detailed in nature.

8. It is cheap compared to written communication which requires writing materials and

stationary.

9. It favors both literates and illiterates therefore can be used by anyone in the organization.

Disadvantages /challenges of non verbal communication

1. It has no universal meaning and therefore can be interpreted differently according to

individual background, knowledge, experience and culture.
2. It cannot be stored or kept for future reference.
3. It may contradict the verbal messages i.e. saying that am happy to see you yet the face
is unfriendly.
4. Non verbal communication can only apply to short distance therefore cannot be used
over long distance to transmit information.
5. It can only be used to convey simple and short messages therefore detailed and
complex messages cannot be transmitted.
6. It does not favor the blind.

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7. It can easily be misinterpreted by various people since it has a unique meaning from
one person to another.

Methods or tools of non verbal communication.

a) Body language

It’s used to give and receive signals which are interpreted in order to have a meaning or a
common understanding. The body language uses the following tools.

1) Facial expressions

This helps to reveal the inner feelings and emotions of the persons. The human face is important
in communication through the use of eyes, mouth , movement of jaws , smiling etc. Such parts
of the human face are sensitive in conveying a person feelings and emotions.

2) Eye contact

This is used to capture attention and interest in the communication received. It is practiced
mainly during face to face communication or interpersonal communication.

3) Gestures

This may be inform of hand shaking, hugging, kissing, hand clap etc. Gestures are used to
convey a particular message or meaning from one person to another. However gestures are
interpreted differently by various persons hence no universal meaning given to them.

4) Postures

These refers to conscious or unconscious decision about how a person sits, walks, stand or lay
down i.e. when the person sits upright, it may reflect being attentive yet a person who sits and
bends on the table may reflect tiredness or lack of interest in the communication .

5) Proximity

It refers to nearness. Space around a person is used to communicate attitude to other people and
objects. People do not want their space to be invaded i.e. when people have closeliness in terms
of distance; they are saying to have intimacy.

b) Environmental communication

Objects in our environment show the status and image of the people who are in possession of
those objects. Environmental communication takes the following forms

 Time

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Time include business time, relaxed time and technical time. Time is vital in smooth planning
and running of the organization activities.

 Territory

This is a place that a person can claim and such a place normally remains definable, unchanged
or stationed. For example the director’s packing space, your office, room etc.

 Design and arrangement

This is communication in terms of office seats, design, room color and desk arrangement.

 Social communication
i) Status

The use of titles is one of the best means of detecting status of organization. The high up a
person is in the organization the more and better space and status that person has.

ii) Symbols inform of logos and pictures portrayparticular information or message.

 Personal appearance.

Personal appearance is the highest personal profile which is visible and forms a basis for the first
impression, generalizations and attitudes.

FACTORS CONSIDERED WHEN CHOOSING CHANNEL A METHOD OF

COMMUNICATION

i) Urgency or speed of the message.

Messages which require urgent transmition to the receiver should use a faster channel such a
telephone, electronic mail, face etc.

ii) Nature of the message

Messages which are detailed and complex in nature should use written communication channels
since it can allow the use diagrams, charts and figures. Such diagrams enable the receiver to
understand the message and be able to provide a feedback. For simple messages, verbal channels
can be used.

iii) Confidentiality of the message

Confidential information should be kept in a secret form and therefore a confidential channel
of communication like letters should be used.

iv) Sensitivity of the message

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Messages which require a lot of care and personal involvement should be transmitted using
verbal channels such as face to face channels. However, in some cases written channels such as
letters can also be used to transmit sensitive messages.

v) Costs involved in transmitting a message.

The cost of sending a message in terms of materials, money and time should be considered.
Messages that require a lot of details should use written communication channels since they are
cheaper compared to verbal communication channels.

vi) Distance involved in transmitting the message

This is in terms of how far the message is required to travel and in what condition it must arrive,
when a long distance is involved, fast means of communication such as fax, telephone, electronic
mail are preferred.

vii) Need of the feedback

When the feedback is required urgently, fast and direct channels are selected. For example
telephone, face to face etc.

viii) Type and nature of receiver (s)

The method of communication should be selected after analyzing the nature of the receivers
because there are channels which cannot influence the receiver.

xi) Geographical coverage of the media or the channel

This is especially considered when the message is to be conveyed over a long distance.

AIMS /GOALS /OBJCETIVES OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANIZATION

 To develop information and understanding amongst all stakeholders. This creates peace
and good relations among the stakeholders.
 To facilitate motivation, co-operation and job satisfaction.
 To discourage misinformation, speculations, rumors and ambiguity.
 To prepare workers for a change by giving them necessary information needed for a
particular change.
 To encourage workers to give suggestions, ideas and views needed for improving the
working environment, goods and services.
 To promote planning and encourage budgeting for future activities of the organization.
 To link the organization to external community such as to customers, suppliers,
government officials, etc.

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 To encourage staffing of members in an organization. Through communication, people

are given duties and responsibilities to perform.
 To organize capital and human resources of the organization in order to achieve the
maximum benefits.

COMMUNICATION BARRIERS

Communication is said to be effective when it moves speedily and smoothly in uninterrupted

flow in an organization. However, the free flow of communication is sometimes interrupted
which cause miscommunication and misunderstanding. Communication barriers may originate
from the sender, transition channels and from the receiver.

Communication barrier is anything that hinders a free flow of communication from the sender to
the receiver and vice-vasa. Communication barriers therefore are a source of miscommunication
and misunderstanding in organizations. Communication barriers include the following.

a) Poorly structured language

Communication to be effective and properly understood by the receiver requires the language to
be simple, brief and familiar to both the sender and the receiver. In this case therefore difficult
words, poor sentences, unfamiliar statements should be avoided during communication since
they are source of miscommunication.

b) Wrong choice of communication channels

For communication to be effective, proper channel of communication should be used during the
transmission process. In this case the nature of the message and the receivers should be
considered when selecting a channel of communication.

c) Noise (environmental conditions)

Noise is a major barrier to communication and can be physical or psychological therefore

communication should be done in a noise free environment.

d) Semantic barrier

This is when communication is interpreted differently by different people according to their

mental attitudes and understanding. In this case communication may fail to have the same
meaning attached to it by both the sender and the receivers.

e) Abstraction

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This is a process where the receiver of information focuses attention to some details of the
message and ignores others. This is a communication barrier because the receiver filters
information and selects few parts.

f) Negative attitudes and opinion towards the message

Personal attitude and opinions normally acts as a barrier especially when information disagrees
with such attitudes and opinions. This limits the receivers to receive information in its totality.

g) Status consciousness

This barrier affects organization communication where the lower level members fear to
communicate to top level managers and also top level managers fear to contact their juniors
because this is seen as a sign of compromising their status and dignity.

h) Suspicious source of information

When the receiver is suspicious about the source of information, he or she tends to react in a
negative way than reacting to the massage itself.

i) Poor listening and attention

This is experienced mainly when the receiver is not ready for the message or when has no
interest in the message.

j) Poor retention of the message

Communication received by the receivers may not be entirely retained throughout the
communication process. This may lead to improper responses which further affect the
communication process.

k) Information overload or under load

When the receiver is congested with a lot of information at the same time, he /she may not be
able to understand it better in order to provide a suitable feedback. On the other hand when the
receiver gets little information he/she may lose interest in the communication.

l) Poor relationship between the sender and the receiver.

Communication received from the source where there is friction and suspicion against the
receiver, it cannot be received favorably hence interpretation may fail. This form of
communication may not be interpreted well in order to give appropriate feedback.

m) Lack of communication planning.

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Communication planning requires the sender to structure well the message, selecting the suitable
channel of transmission and improving relationship with the receiver.

SOLUTIONS TO COMMUNICATION BARRIERS

1 The channel of communication should be selected carefully and well maintained throughout
the communication process in order to prevent break downs in the communication.

2 Communication language should be simple and clear such that it can be easily be understood
by the receiver.

3. There should be improvement in the relationship between the sender and the receiver in order
to create a conducive environment for the communication.

4. Communication should be well planned and well constructed. Communication should be

adequate and complete, well organized and simple in order to suit the requirements of the
receiver.

5. A climate of trust and confidence should be created in order to reduce relationship barriers in
an organization. Organization members should be encouraged to share information freely
without fear and suspicion.

6. Listening should be enhanced such that information received can be well interpreted and
understood by the receiver before providing the feedback.

7. There is a need to understand human and physical environment during the process of
communication. This helps to select a suitable channel to be used during transmission of
information from the sender to the receiver.

8. Non verbal communication tools (body language) should be congruent with verbal
communication in order to avoid contradictions of spoken words with gestures.

9. There is a need to determine requirements and the purpose of communication before

communicating. This helps the sender to structure communication properly by considering the
needs of the receiver.

10. The sender of information should know when to deliver the message to the receiver and
above all should study the audience or the receiver before communicating.

Classification of communication (flow lines/ Aspects/ Directions /channels) in an

organization.

Communication in an organization can be formal, informal, internal or external.

Formal communication

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This is where communication flows in an organization following systematic and well established
structures or channels. Formal communication takes the following forms.

1. Downward communication

This is where information flows from people at higher levels of management (superiors) to those
at the bottom level (subordinates) in the hierarchy of the organization.

The media commonly used in down ward communication includes, meeting, telephone calls,
letters, memos, policy statements etc. However, downward communication is associated with the
following challenges.

Advantages

a) In4mn the different levels of organization is time consuming and it creates delaying
causing out organization activities.
b) Downward communication may be distilled since in4mn go through many levels hence
some parts of the message may get lost.

2. Upward communication.

This is where in4mn flows from subordinates to suspicious in the organization hierarchy. In4mn
in this channel mainly relate to production results, marketing and financial data complains and
decisions from subordinates.

The media used in this channel is the suggestion box, meeting, reports, group discussion etc.

3. Horizontal communication /lateral communication

This is where inf4mn flows between people at same level in an organization hierocracy i.e.
communication between heads of departments, subordinates managers etc.

4. Diagonal /cross wise communication

This is where in4mn flows between persons at different levels who are not in direct relationship
with one another. Diagonal channels are useful. Speed up in4mn in an organization. They are
used to improve relationship and cooperation between employees and to coordinate efforts so as
to achieve organization goals.

3. In4mal communication

This is where communication takes place without following the hierarchy or structures of
organization. Communication in this channel follows grape vine structures.

Gaspe vine communication.

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This is communication in4mn of speculation, rumors which takes place in an organization. This
form of communication is practiced where proper channel of communication are blocked. Grape
vine communication is a good source of in4mn to managers since it reveals the feelings thoughts
and emotions or organization members.

However this channel of communication is dangerous since it can create miss- communication
and inter- personal problems. It can also destroy the moral of members especial when in4mn
speed affects them negatively.

Internal communication

This is communication targeting only internal members of particular organizations. This form of
communication mainly covers meetings, memos, consultations etc.

External communication.

This is communication targeting external stakeholders of a particular organization.

Advantages of Grape vine communication.

1. It brings unity in an organization since everybody participates in it. Members of

organization share and discuss their views with one another which creates unity.
2. It faster and some time vital in4m of exchange.
3. It helps managers to know reactions of their subordinates on policies of the organization
in this case managers get to know immediate feedback compared to formal channels of
communication.
4. It is a supplement to formal communication especially where formal channels do not
work properly.
5. It also revelsfeelings and emotions of organization members about a particular issue of
situation.

Disadvantages of Grape vine communication

1. It’s more based on rumors and therefore does not depict the complete state of affairs in an
organization.
2. It’s not trust worthy since it does not follow official channel of communication in an
organization (rules and regulations )
3. It affects negatively the productively of employees since they spend time in talking other
than working.
4. It may lead to hostility of members against their superiors especially when in formal
speed affects them.

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5. It may affect the good will of the organization especially when falls negative in formal
about superious is communication.
6. It’s too distorted since members may add facts rather than simple reporting.

7Cs OF COMMUNICATION /PRINCIPLES OF CMMUNICATION (WRITTEN

COMMUNICATION)

These are basis rules or guidelines followed when composing or writing a message to be
communicated .These include the following ;

1. Correctness

The message should be free from any mistake , well ,punctuated with correct spelling
and grammar .Information to be communicated must be accurate .

2. Completeness.

The message should have all the necessary details and facts in order to meet the
requirements and needs of the receiver .

3. Conciseness.

The message should be planned and presented briefly with simple and carefully
selected words .The message should be straight forward and presented in few words
possible but complete .

4. Courtesy

The message should be composed in a polite way with a good tone .The message should
show respect to receiver .

5. Clarity

The message should be clear and simple so as to be understood easily by the receiver
.The language used should be simple and familiar to the receiver .

6. Consideration

The message should be planned and composed with the receiver in mind .The needs of
the receiver should be include in the message.

7. Consistency

The message should not change its meaning or intention from the introduction to the
conclusion . The sender should not divert from the or the subject of the message .

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BUSINESS LETTERS

A letter is defined as printed or written information addressed to a particular person or

organization .Letters are used internally and externally as official means of communication.

PARTS OF A BUSINESS LETTER

Business letters contains compulsory parts and optional parts.

a) Compulsory parts.

1. Return address.

This is the address of the sen.der of the letter. This part helps the receiver of the letter to know
the details of the sender .It out lines the following;

-Name of 6the organization or the written.

-Physical address in terms of place of 5residhence v or are of operation, postal address telephone
contact website, email address, plot numbers etc

It can be written as below;

Maker ere Institute for social development

Sir Apollo Kagwa Road -Maker ere

Plot no 176-200

p.o box 16074 Kampala –Uganda

Telephone no 0414260073

Website :www.misd.ac. ug

2. Date

This part contains the current date on which the letter is written .The date should appear below
the return address .

3. Inside address .

This is the address of the receiver of the letter .The inside address should be writt4en on the left
margin of the page . Inside address contains details as those of the return address . When the
receivers name is not known by the writer , the attention line is used . E.gAttention , Executive
director.

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4. Salutation

This is part that adds a personal torch to the letter . The traditional salutation used is “Dear”
followed by the title or last name of the receiver.

When the receiver is not known by the sender, use Dear sir |madam.

When addressing a group of persons, use

*Ladies and gentlemen (when both male and females are addressed)

*Ladies (when addressing only females)

*Gentlemen (when addressing only male)

5. Subject line

This is a brief sentence or key words describing the content of the letter . It is the title of the
letter and it should be written in capital letter and underlined . When small letter are used should
be highlighted.

The subject line is the major topic or issues to be presented in the letter.

6. Body of the letter .

This is the message or content of the letter.

The body should si9ngle spaced and presented in at least three(3) paragraphs include ;

-Introductory paragraph

This part introduces the reader to the main purpose or reason of the letter .

-Content paragraph .

This part gives details information about the objective of the vlet7yter . The body should be well
punctuated ,presented in simple ,clear and polite language . It should be straight forward to the
pointb and presented in few words possible .

7. Complementary close and signature .

This part closes the letter with phrases such as yours faithfully, truelye.t.c

When writing the complementary close ,only capitalize the first letter of the phrase e.g yours
faithfully ,yours truly.

b)Optional parts

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1. Copy line notation

This part informs the reader of the letter that other persons are receiving a copy of the letter. It
may be written as followed;

-Photocopy. (pc)

This is used to inform the reader that other person (s) is receiving the letter in a duplicate form.

-bc (blind copy)

This is used to inform other person(s) who is given a copy of letter that the original receiver is
not aware of the copies given to other person(s)

When using a cop]y line ,the written should show or indicate the names or titles of other
receivers

2. Enclosure notation.

This is used to indicate that there are other items or copies of other documents included or sealed
in the envelope of the letter. The written should specify all other items in the envelope.

3. Post script (P.S)

This part is used to add a meaning or idea or to emphasize the key issues in the letter. It is used
also to give additional information to the receiver of the letter.

It is normally written below the concluding paragraph of the letter or below the complementary
close and signature.

METHODS OF LETTER PRESENTATION

There are normally two (2) methods or styles of preparing and presenting letter namely;

a) Fully blocked styles or method.

This is a method where all parts of the letter begin from the left margin of the page.

b) Semi-blocked or indicated style.

This is a method where some parts i.e. return address and complementary close and signature are
presented on the rights margin and others begin from the left margin.

Body paragraphs ar43e presented few spaces away from the left margin .

TYPES OF BUSINESS LETTERS

1. APPLICATION LETTER.

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This is a letter prepared and sent in response to the job advert. It is prepared to request for a post
in the organization . When writing the application letter , the following should be considered ;

a)In the introductory or opening paragraph , make reference to the job advert or communication
made about the vacancy or job . for example “with reference to new vision dated 20th ,march
,2012 page 17 ,you were looking for a chief cashier and l hope my four year experience as a
cashier of oil com ltd will benefit the organization

b)In the content paragraph , the applicant should use simple , clear and polite language in order
to induce the employer . In this paragraph , write a bout yourself in terms personal data ,
education achievement , job or work experience, character ,abililities and skills .

Application letter is sent together with a resume (curriculum vitae)or a cover letter.

FACTORS CONSIDERED WHEN CHOOSING A CHANNEL OR A METHOD OF

COMMUNICATION .

1) Urgency /speed of the message

Messages which require urgent transmission to the receiver should use faster channel
such as telephone ,electric mail ,fax etc

2) Nature of the message

Detailed and complex messages are best communicated using written communication since
it allows use of diagrams ,charts ,calculations and figures . Simple messages on the other
hand are communicated using verbal non verbal channels.

Confidentiality of the message

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Confidential messages should be kept secretly and with a lot of care therefore written
channel should be used for example letters .

3) Sensitivity of the message

Messages which require personal involvement and a lot of care should be transmitted
by verbal or written channels such as face to face communication ,letters.

4) Costs involved in transmitting the message

Detailed message should be transmitted by written channels since they are cheaper
compared verbal methods for example letters ,reports etc .

AIMS / GOALS / OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANISATION

 To develop information and understanding among all organization stakeholders

 To facilitate motivation , co-operation and job satisfaction of employees
 To discourage misinformation, stipulation, romours and ambiguity in an organization.
 To prepare workers or members for a change by giving information necessary y
for a particular change
 To encourage members to give suggestions , views and needed for improving
working environment, goods and services.
 To promote planning and encouraging budgeting for future activity (ies) of the
organization.
 To encourage staffing
 and proper distribution of duties and responsibilities amongst members
 To link the organization to the external community or stakeholders
 To organize capital and other resources so as to achieve maximum benefits
 To encourage decision making by involving all relevant members in decision
making process.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION (FLOWLINES /FLOW

DIRECTIONS /FLOW ASPECTS) IN AN ORGANISATION.
Communication in an organization is classified as follows.
a) Formal communication

This is where communication flows following established and systematic structures or

channels in an organization. Formal communication follows the following channels.

1. Downward communication

This is where information flows from top executives (superiors) to those at the bottom
(subordinates) in the organizational hierarchy . The media commonly used in downward

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communication include business memos , company newsletters , business letters , meeting

and telephone .

Advantages of downward communication

i) It follows the official chain of command therefore help to mention discipline

and order in the organization .
ii) It increases the operational efficiency of employees since top executive give
instructions ,duties and responsibilities to lower level employees .
iii) It enables the top executive to inform its members about the vision ,mission
goals ,new policies or change in the existing policies .This can be done through
down ward notices ,memos newsletters etc
iv) It facilitates delegation of authority to lower level employees which simplifies
work
v) Top level managers give inspiration to employees which improves relationship.
vi) Information passed on is formal therefore reliable.

Limitations or challenges of downward communication

 There are higher chances of message distortion since it passes through many
people or hands to reach the bottom users.
 It is associated with delayed feedback which results into communication in
efficiencies.
 Communication flows step by step process and therefore consumes a lot time .
 It can affect the morale of employees due to long process , time consuming and
delayed feedback associated with it.
 It is not suitable for motivation of employees since it entirely depends on top
executive hence no suggestions , ideas or views from employees is communicated .

2. Upward communication

This is where communication flows from bottom subordinates (lower level employees ) to
the top executive in the organization hierarchy . information communicated upward relates
to performance results , marketing and financial data , suggestion ,views ,ideas and
complaints. The channels used are reports, letters, meetings, suggestion box etc.

Advantages of upward channel

i. It enables subordinates to give their ideas, suggestion and complaints to their ,

superior which facilitates good relationship and decision making .
ii. Helps to bring top executives closer to lower level employees hence developing
mutual trust and good relations.
iii. It boosts motivation of employees.

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iv. It is the best channel to provide feedback or reactions from employees about
top managers decision , policies ,duties and responsibilities.

Challenges of upward communication

 Non cooperative attitude of superior which damaged the willingness of employees

to give information .
 Information is highly distorted before it reaches the top level executives
 Lack of openness between employees and superiors.
 Delay in communication transmission which demoralizes employees to give
information ,

3. Horizontal or lateral communication

This is communication between people at the same level in the organization hierarchy i.e
communication between managers ,department heads ,lower level employees etc.

Advantages of lateral channel

i. It save time since it is direct between individual at the same time .

ii. It facilitates coordination of tasks (team work ) and cooperation among members .
iii. It promotes emotional and social assistance to organization members.
iv. It is used to resolve conflicts between sections or departments.
v. Promotes the sharing of information between employees of the same level

Disadvantages
i) It is limits to only persons of the same level therefore cannot be used to unite
the entire organization
ii) It can consume time especially when personal matters are discussed

4. Diagonal / crosswise communication

This is where information flows between persons at different levels who are not in direct
reporting relationship with each other .

b) Informal communication

This is where communication takes place without following the organization hierarchy or
established structure . Informal communication follows the grapevine channel.

1. Grapevine communication.

This is communication in form of rumors, speculations which take place in an

organization . This communication normally circulate where official channel of
communication are blocked .

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Advantages of grapevine communication

i. It bring unity since many individuals participate in it by sharing information

and ideas
ii. It is faster therefore information is spread quickly and at time vital information is
communicated .
iii. It helps managers to know reactions of employees about policies and decisions
made .
iv. It supplements formal channel of communication especially when they are weak.
v. It reveals member real feelings and emotions about a particular issue or
policy .

Disadvantages of grapevine communication

 In most cases ,it is based on rumors hence not reflecting the actual state of affairs
in the organization .
 The grapevine channel is not trusted since it does not follow the official chain of
command .
 It affects negatively employees productivity especially when employees spend more
time talking than working .
 It may lead to hostility and conflicts among members against their superiors when
information spread affects them .
 It may affect good name or reputation of the organization when false and negative
information about superior is spread
 Information spread is too distorted since some information may be added at each
stage rather than reporting information

How to control grapevine communication

1. Management should make information available through formal system about key
issues and event that affect employees .
2. Management should ensure timely flow of information in the organization.
3. Formal channel of communication should be open and the process of
communication to be kept short .Managers should use direct memos , notices
and announcements.
4. Management should involve employees in decision making especially on matters
affecting employees and the general organization
5. Management should act quickly on grapevine communication before it circulates
to the whole organization .

5 External communication

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This is communication between management and the external stakeholders can be

customers , suppliers , financiers , donors ,governments officials etc

CURRICULUM VITAE (RESUME)

This is a document summarizing an individual details in terms of achievement , personal data

and reference.

PARTS OF A RESUME (CV)

1.Title .This part outlines the word c.v or resume .

2.Personal data or bio-data

This part indicates a person’s personal data in terms of name ,age , gender (sex),place of
residence ,nationally , address (postal ,e-mail or website )and telephone contact number.

3.Personal profile

This part highlights the present status of the application in terms of education ,experience (job)
and character and altitude , (personal traits) for example Graduate of business administration
with 5 years experience in marketing products ,self motivated , dedicated and committed person
who performs the assigned duties with high degree of professionalism and a good time manager.

4.Career objective (optional)

This part states the professional /career objectives of the applicant for example “to maximize my
accounting skills in a reputable organization “

5.Education achievement or back ground .

Period Institute or school award

2009-2012 Ndejje University – Bachelor of ICT
2006-2008 Kampala Uganda Advanced Certificate
Maker ere college-Kampala of Education

This part summaries the applicants education achievement in terms of institutions , grades or
cerficates and transcripts .It can be written as below;

The applicant may also give details of other qualification or certificates obtained in other way
than the formal ways. E,g

Period Institution Award

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May 2011- July 2011 MISD -Kampala CCA

6.Employment record or job experience.

This part summaries working record of the applied for the applicant should arrange the
employment record from the most current one to the previous experience for example .

period Organization Job title Duties

2008 -2011 Oil com LTD Cashier  Collecting cash from
Nakulabye pump attendants
 Banking cash idlected.
 Preparing books of
accounts
 Preparing financial
2002 -2005 DAMA consultants Accountant assistant reports
Limited -Kampala

7.Special skills or talent.

This part outlines both professional and non professional skills possessed by the optical for
example ,communication skills ,team leading skills , accounting skill’s , negotiation skills,
driving skills e.t.c

8. languages

This part outlines different languages the applicant can use during communication the language
should be determined or recorded using appropriate levels or scores for example .

Language Spoken Written reading

English Fluent V. Good V.Good
French V.Good Good Good
German Good Fair Fair
African (local) fluent V.Good Fluent

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9.Extra-curricular activities or Responsibilities held .This states any position of responsibility

the applicant has ever held in an organization or during school. For example.

Period Organization Post

2009 – 2011 MISD –Kampala Guild president
2002 – 2005 Kampala Academy - Head prefect
2000 – 2008 Kampala Youth leader
SDA Church -Hoima

10. Interest and hobbies

This part states the various activities engaged in by the applicant during relaxed or free time
which is in line with the position applied for e.gResearch, touring and travel, readingbook,
Games and sports etc.

11. Reference (referees)

This part states the details of persons who can give true and unbiased information a bout the
applicant .In mot cases ,the recommended number of referees is 3(three) persons who may not be
relatives of the applicant for example .

1. Mr. Odongo James

Marketing manager

Oil com limited –Nakulabye

Tel .0414283549

2. COVER LETTER.

This is a letter which introduces the applicant of the job to the employer or organization .It
specifically introduces the applicant , highlighting key selling points about the applicant in terms
of skills ,experience and education .

The applicant should consider the following tips when writing the cover letter.

-Customize each cover letter relating to each job being advertised

-Indicate your interest in job

-Indicate the source of the job advert or information

-State why you are interested in the company

-Express your enthusing for the job

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-Indicate your most relevant skills and experience .However , do not duplicate your cv or resume

-Refer to the qualifications or requirements of the position and illustrate how your abilities ,skills
and experiences relate.

-Emphasizes your achievements relating to the position

-Indicate how you will follow up the application by stating your telephone numbers or e-mail
address.

-Thank the Organization for considering your letter.

3. Letter of interest / prospecting /inquiry letter.

This is a letter sent to the company that may be hiring or recruiting but has not listed a specific
job advert or opening to apply for .

It is a self –initiated application letter to the organization which has not yet advertised the
available posts or vacancies .

4. Appointment letter.

This is a letter to the person who has been given a particular job in the organization . It must
indicate terms and conditions of work , duties , responsibilities and remunerations .

5. Acceptance letter

This is a letter prepared by the successful job applicant to show willingness of talking up the
job given to him / her .

It should be /prepared when the successful application has understood the terms and conditions
of the position.

6. Purchased order letter.

This is a letter addressed to the supplier of goods and services requesting to supply the
indentified goods and services.

The letter should specify the features and description of the product in terms of quality, quantity,
color, size, prices among others.

7. Letter of inquiry

This is a letter requesting for information about or product, service, activity, program, process or
procedure from a specified person or organization.

8. Quotation letter.

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This is a letter responding to the letter of inquiry .It is prepared by the organization in response to
the letter of inquiry received in the organization.

9. Sales letter or proposal.

This is a letter written to the prospective buyer or customer summarizing details and benefit of a
particular product or service. It must be written briefly using polite language in order to attract
the prospective buyer to buy the product or service.

10. Claim or complaint letter.

This is a letter written to convey a complaint about a particular issue, product, service, behavior,
and propose a possible solution.

11. Adjustment letter.

This is a letter responding to claim or complaint letter by explaining how the complaint or claim
raised in the claim l3etter will be handled or solved. The letter should state the regret remarks,
action taken or to be taken and conclude with a positive note encouraging good relationship with
the organization.

12. Confirmation letter.

This is a letter written to provide a record about the arrangement s made between the sender and
the receiver .It should brief and prepared to confirm an activity due to take place . It is used to
confirm a meeting, journey, conference e.t.c

13. Acknowledgment letter.

This is a letter prepared to show that something has received where written reco9rds are needed.

14. Promotion letter.

This is a letter prepared by the employer or organization to an employee when the employee is
given a high or letter position. It should specify the new job title, duties, responsibilities,
reporting channel, remunerations and benefits.

15. Resignation letter.

This is a letter written by the employee when an employee is no longer interested in the job , It
is written to inform the employee that the current employee is leaving the assigned duties
according to own will . It should explain the reason why the employee is resigning.

16. Warning letter.

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This is a letter prepared by the officer in charge of workers to the employee whose behavior is
contradicting with the job description or rules and regulation of the organization.

17. Any other letter.

LISTENING

Listening is the process of deriving a meaning from the received sounds or information
,listening provides a basis upon which proper feedback is based when verbal
communication is practiced .

Listening is a skill which should be learnt and improved upon on a continuous basis .It is
a tool upon which instructions ,duties ,task and responsibilities are given to employees in
an organization from superior .

LISTENING PROCESS

a) Hearing;

This is a process where a person uses physical sensation of ears to capture or receive
a given sound .

b) Interpretation;

This is a process where a person analyses the received sound or information in order
to understand it or not . This is a mental or brain process which require attention .

c) Evaluation ;

It is a process where a person decides on how to use the received information or

sound .

d) Reaction ;

It is a process where a person apply the received information .

Types of Listening
Discriminative Listening
This is the most basic type of listening, whereby the difference between the sounds is identified. Unless
the differences between the sounds are identified, the meaning expressed by such differences cannot be
grasped. Once we learn to distinguish between sounds in our own language, we are able to do the same in
Other languages. One reason why people belonging to one country find it difficult to speak the language
of another country is that they find the sounds similar and cannot understand the subtle differences.

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Comprehension Listening
Once we have learnt to discriminate between the different sounds, the next step is to try to
comprehend the meaning of these sounds. In order to do this, we require a dictionary of words,
along with the rules of grammar and syntax. Apart from the verbal communication, we also need to
understand the meaning conveyed by the speaker’s nonverbal behavior. This can be achieved by
closely observing various aspects of the speaker’s body language and tone of voice.
Evaluative Listening
This kind of listening involves making judgments about what the speaker is saying.
We listen critically and try to assess what is being said as good, bad, worthy or unworthy.
We generally resort to this kind of listening when the other person is trying to persuade us, change
our behavior or convictions. The tendency then is to question what the speaker is trying to say.
4. Appreciative Listening
This kind of listening could be in the form of paying selective attention to certain kinds of
information which might be relevant to us, or which helps to meet our needs and goals. The
tendency is to appreciate such information better. Appreciative listening is also used when listening
to good music, poetry or a powerful speech.
5. Empathetic Listening
In this type of listening, we try to put ourselves in the other person’s place and understand the
moods, beliefs, goals and feelings behind the speaker’s words. It requires excellent
discrimination and paying attention to the nuances of emotional signals. It also requires a high
degree of sensitivity and tactful probing on the part of the listener.
Empathetic listening is most often needed at the workplace, when dealing with customer complaints,
employee feedback and problems. A manager doing a performance appraisal with an employee for
example, should listen to the employee’s point of view and understand the real reasons for lack of
performance.
6. Therapeutic Listening
In this type of listening, the listener goes beyond merely empathizing with the speaker and tries to
help him to change or develop in some way. In other words, he plays the role of a therapist, by
diagnosing the problem at hand and offering a remedy or solution. This type of listening is
common in social situations, where family and personal problems are resolved through counseling. It
is also important in job situations, where managers try to solve the problems of employees. Taking
the same example of a manager doing a performance appraisal, the manager should not only
understand the employee’s problems, but should also “counsel” him, by suggesting what measures
he could take to improve his performance in future.
7. Dialogic Listening
As the name suggests, this type of listening involves listening and learning through dialogue. This
implies that listening is a two way,
rather than a oneway
process. It involves interchange of ideas
and information between the speaker and the listener. This type of listening is active listening,
whereby the listener continuously seeks clarifications, gives feedback and engages in conversation
with the speaker. Another name for this is “relational” listening, since a relationship is established
through the exchange of ideas.

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IMPORTANCE OF LISTENING

1. Effective listening provides a basis upon which proper feedback is given to the
sender of the message.
2. It enables the receiver to make informed decision or conclusion about the message
received
3. Effective listening is a sign of respect to the sender of the message.
4. Effective listening enables subordinates to take or receive instructions and
responsibilities from their superiors
5. It facilitates good relationship among members of the organization .This enables
teamwork and coordinates in an organization

PRINIPLES OR RULES OF EFFECTIVE LISTENING

i. Listeners should show interest in the message in its totality .Listeners

should not make conclusions before considering the message in its totality .
ii. Listeners should concentrate on the content of the message but not on the
presentation style of the speaker or personality . Good listeners should be
interested in learning from the speaker.
iii. The receiver of the message should determine in advance the objective of the
message or the speaker .This enables the listener to pay attention and focus
on the message .
iv. Listeners should not be interrupted when receiving information .This enables
the listener to take whole message from the sender .
v. Listeners should note down the main points or ideas being presented by the
speaker in order to avoid overcrowding the mind .
vi. Good listeners should seek for clarity or more explanations from the speaker in
order to understand the message being presented
vii. Good listeners should use suitable non verbal communication tools (cues) which
focus attention to the speaker or the message
viii. Good listeners should not be biased about the message or the speaker during
the listening process .
ix. Good listeners do not judge the speaker before listening to the message in its
totality .Therefore listeners should not make quick judgment or conclusion
before taking the whole message .
x. Listeners should trust the source of information in order to avoid suspicions and
mistrust of the message received .
MEMO WRITING
A memo is a document prepared in the organization to communicate various
issues to internal members of the organization .

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A memo can be brief or detailed depending on the issue to be communicated

PARTS OF A MEMO
1. TITLE. This part shows the name of the organization or the word ‘memo’
2. DATE. This shows the date on which the memo is prepared
3. TO . this part outlines the details of the intended receiver
4. FROM. This part outlines the details or the name of the sender of memo
5. SUBJECT. This indicates the main topic or issue to be communicated in the
memo.
6. BODY. this describes in details the issue to be communicated to the receiver
of the memo.
7. Name of the sender and signature.

BUSINESS LETTERS

A letter is defined as printed or written information addressed to a particular person or

organization.Letters are used internally and externally as official means of communication in

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organisations. Letters can be written on plain papers or on printed letter heads commonly known
as headed papers.

PARTS OF A BUSINESS LETTER

Business letters contains compulsory parts and optional parts.

a) Compulsory parts.

1. Return address.

This is the address of the sender or writer of the letter. This part helps the receiver of the letter to
know the details of the sender.It outlines the following;

-Name of the organization or the writer.

-Physical address of the writer in terms of place of residence or area of operation, postal address,
telephone contact, website, email address, plot or block number etc.

It can be written as below;

Makerere Institute for social development

Sir Apollo Kagwa Road -Makerere

Plot no 176-200

P.O Box 16074 Kampala –Uganda

Telephone no: 0414-260073

Website:www.misd.ac. Ug

2. Date

This part contains the current date on which the letter is written. The date should appear below
the return address.

3. Inside address.

This is the address of the receiver of the letter.The inside address should be written on the left
margin of the page. It contains details as those of the return address. When the receivers name is
not known by the writer, the attention line is used. E.g.Attention: Executive director.

4. Salutation

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This is a part that adds a personal tarch to the letter. The traditional salutation used is the word
“Dear” followed by the title or last name of the receiver.When the receiver is not known by the
sender, use Dear Sir / Madam,

When addressing a group of persons, use:

 Ladies and gentlemen (when addressing male and female)

 Ladies (when addressing only females)
 Gentlemen (when addressing only males)

5.Subject line

This is a brief sentence or key words describing the content of the letter. It is the title of the letter
and it should be written in capital letters and underlined. When small letters are used should be
highlighted.The subject line is the major topic or issue to be presented in the letter. It is written
as;

RE: APPLICATION FOR THE POST OF ACCOUNTS ASSISTANT.

6. Body of the letter.

This is the message or content of the letter. It explains in details the subject or topic presented in
the subject line. The body should single spaced and presented in at least three (3) paragraphs
which include;

 Introductory paragraph
This part introduces the reader to the main purpose or reason of the letter. It should be
written briefly in not more than five lines.
 Content paragraph.
This part gives detailed information about the objective of the letter or writer. The body
should be well punctuated, presented in simple,clear and polite language. It should be
straight forward to the pointand presented in few complete words possible. The body can
be presented using other sub or minor paragraphs.
 Concluding paragraph
This part sums up the body of the letter by suggesting a suitable action to the receiver
about the letter. It specifically suggests the way forward the receiver should take upon
receiving and reading the letter. E.g. I will be grateful if my letter is considered
positively.

7. Complementary close and signature.

This part closes or sums up the letter with phrasessuch asyours faithfully, truelye.t.c.

When writing the complementary close, only capitalize the first letter of the phrase e.g.

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Yours faithfully,

Signature of the writer or sender

Name or title of the writer or sender.

Note: Any business letter should have the above compulsory parts presented properly.

b) Optional parts of the business letter.

1. Copy line notation

This part informs the reader of the letter that other person(s)is / are receiving a copy of the letter.
It may be written as follows;

 Carbon copy (cc)

This part informs the receiver of the letter that, other person(s) is / are receiving an original copy
of the letter.

 Photocopy (pc)

This part informs the reader that, other person(s) is / are receiving the letter in a duplicate form.

 Blind copy(bc)

This part informs other person(s) who is / are given a copy of letter that the original receiver is
not aware of the copies given to them (other person)

When using a copy line, the writer should show or indicate the names or titles of other receivers
e.g.

Cc Director cc Mrs. Kasumba Jane

Cc Secretary Cc Mr. Sentamu Richard

2. Enclosure notation

This is used to indicate that there are other items or copies of other documents included or sealed
in the envelope of the letter. The writer should specify all other items in the envelope.

E.g. Enclosure (2)

i) Curriculum vitea

ii) Photocopies of academic certificates

3. Post script (P.S)

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This part is used to add a meaning or idea or to emphasize the key issues in the letter. It is used
also to give additional information to the receiver of the letter.

It is normally written below the concluding paragraph of the letter or below the complementary
close and signature.

METHODS OF LETTER PRESENTATION

There are basically two methods or styles of preparing and presenting letter namely;

a) Fully blocked style or method.

This is a method where all parts of the letter begin from the left margin of the letter page.

b) Semi-blocked or indented style.

This is a method where some parts i.e.return address and complementary close and signature
are presented on the right margin of the letter page and others begin from the left margin.

Body paragraphs are presented few spaces away from the left margin.

TYPES OF BUSINESS LETTERS

1. APPLICATION LETTER

This is a letter prepared and sent in response to the job advert. It is prepared to request for a post
in the organization. When writing the application letter, the following should be considered;

In the introductory or opening paragraph, make reference to the job advert or communication
made about the vacancy or job, for example

With reference to new vision dated 20th March, 2012 page 17,you were looking for a chief
cashier and l hope my four years experience as a cashier of oil com ltd will benefit the
organization

In the content paragraph, the applicant should use simple, clear and polite language in order to
induce the employer. In this paragraph, write about yourself in terms personal data, education
achievement, job or work experience, character, abilities and skills which are necessary to the
job advertised.

Sample Application letter (Fully blocked style)

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AseindaLindah
Kibuli-Kampala
P.O Box 1356, Kibuli
Tel: 0776-908 765

30th September, 2012

The Human Resource Manager,

Kampala Meat packers
P.O Box 234, Kampala
Tel: 0412-456 789

Dear Sir / Madam,

RE: APPLICATION FOR THE POST OF ACCOUNTS ASSISTANT

With reference to Daily Monitor dated 25th September, 2012, you were looking for Accounts
Assistant and therefore I’m applying for the post hoping that my two years working experience
as an accounts assistant of NINA Interiors, Kampala will benefit much the organisation.

I’m female Ugandan aged 24, holding a diploma in accountancy of Makerere University. I have
two years experience of performing accounting work with NINA Interiors. I possess excellent
accounting and book keeping skills, communication skills and team leading skills. I’m dedicated,
committed and hard working person who performs the assigned duties with no supervision.
Basing on my experience, skills and character, I’m the best person suitable for the job if given an
opportunity. I hope to communicate all these with you and am contacted on 0776-908 765 all
day.

I will be glad if my humble application meets your positive consideration.

Yours sincerely,

Sign…………

AseindaLindah

Note

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Application letter is sent together with a resume (curriculum vitae)or a cover letter.

CURRICULUM VITAE (RESUME)

This is a document summarizing an individual’s details in terms of achievements, personal data

and reference.

PARTS OF A RESUME (CV)

1. Title .This part outlines the word c.v or resume.

2. Personal data or bio-data

This part indicates a person’s personal data in terms of name, age, gender (sex), place of
residence, nationality, marital status, address (postal, e-mail or website) and telephone contact
number. It can be written as below;

Name : Mabor John

Place of residence : Kawempe

Date of birth : 20th April, 1984

Marital status : Married

Nationality : Ugandan

Address : P.O Box 2367, Kampala

Telephone contact : 0772-675 432 / 0754-897 564

3. Personal profile

This part highlights the present status of the applicant in terms of education,experience
(job),character and attitude (personal traits). For example

Graduate of business administration with 5 years experience in marketing products, self

motivated, dedicated and committed person who performs the assigned duties with high degree
of professionalism and a good time manager.

4. Career objective (optional)

This part states the major professional /career objective of the applicant. For example

To maximize my accounting skills in a reputable organization

5. Education achievement or back ground.

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This part summaries the applicant’s education achievement in terms of institutions, grades or
certificates and transcripts.It can be written as below;

Period Institution or school award

2009-2012 Ndejje University – Bachelor of Business Studies
Kampala
Uganda Advanced Certificate
2006-2008 Makerere college-Kampala of Education

2002-2006 Green Hill Academy-Kampala Uganda certificate of

education

The applicant may also give details of other qualifications or certificates obtained in other way
than the formal ways. E,g.

Period Institution Award

May 2011- July 2011 MISD -Kampala CCA

6. Employment record or job experience.

This part summaries the working record of the applicant. It should bearranged from the most
current one to the previous experience.

It can be written as below;

period Organization Job title Duties

2008 -2011 Oil com LTD- Cashier  Collecting cash from
Nakulabye pump attendants
 Banking cash collected.

2002 -2005 DAMA consultants Accounts assistant  Preparing books of

Limited -Kampala accounts
 Preparing financial
reports

7. Special skills or talent.

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This part outlines both professional and non professional skills possessed by the applicant; for
example, communication skills, team leading skills, accounting skills, negotiation skills, driving
skills e.t.c

8. Languages

This part outlines different languages the applicant can use during communication. The
language should be determined or recorded using appropriate levels or scores.For example.

Language Spoken Written reading

English Fluent V. Good V.Good
French V.Good Good Good
German Good Fair Fair
African (local) fluent V.Good Fluent

9. Extra-curricular activities or Responsibilities held.

This part states any position of responsibility the applicant has ever held in any organization or
during school. For example.

Period Organization Post

2009 – 2011 MISD –Kampala Guild president

2002 – 2005 Kampala Academy - Head prefect

Kampala

2000 – 2008 SDA Church -Hoima Youth leader

10. Interest and hobbies

This part states the various activities engaged in by the applicant during relaxed or free time
which isin line with the position applied for e.g Research, touring and travel,reading book,
Games and sports etc.

11. Reference (referees)

This part states the details of persons who can give true and unbiased information about the
applicant.In most cases,the recommended number of referees is 3(three) who may not be
relatives of the applicant.It can be written as below;

1. Mr. Odongo James

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Marketing manager

Oil com limited –Nakulabye

Tel: 0414-283549

COVER LETTER.

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This is a letter which introduces the applicant of the job to the employer or organization.It
specifically introduces the applicant, highlighting key selling points about the applicant in terms
of skills,experience and education.

The applicant should consider the following tips when writing the cover letter.

 Customize each cover letter relating to each job being advertised

 Indicate your interest in job
 Indicate the source of the job advert or information
 State why you are interested in the company
 Express your enthusiasm for the job
 Indicate your most relevant skills and experience. However , do not duplicate your c.v or
resume
 Refer to the qualifications or requirements of the position and illustrate how your
abilities, skills and experiences relate.
 Emphasizes your achievements relating to the position
 Indicate how you will follow up the application by stating your telephone numbers or e-
mail address.
 Thank the Organization for considering your letter.

Sample cover letter.

3.Letter of interest / prospecting /inquiry letter.

This is a letter sent to the company that may be hiring or recruiting but has not listed a specific
job advert or opening to apply for .

It is a self –initiated application letter to the organization which has not yet advertised the
available posts or vacancies .

4. Appointment letter.

This is a letter to the person who has been given a particular job in the organization . It must
indicate terms and conditions of work , duties , responsibilities and remunerations .

5. Acceptance letter

This is a letter prepared by the successful job applicant to show willingness of talking up the
job given to him / her .

It should be /prepared when the successful application has understood the terms and conditions
of the position .

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6. Purchased order letter .

This is a letter addressed to the supplier of goods and services requesting to supply the
indentified goods and services .

The letter should specify the features and description of the product in terms of quality,
quantity,color, size , prices among others .

7. Letter of inquiry

This is a letter requesting for information about or product, service,activity,program, process or

procedure from a specified person or organization.

8. Quotationletter.

This is a letter responding to the letter of inquiry .It is prepared by the organization in response to
the letter of inquiry received in the organization.

9. Sales letter or proposal.

This is a letter written to the prospective buyer or customer summarizing details and benefit of a
particular product or service. It must be written briefly using polite language in order top attract
the prospective buyer to buy the product or service.

10. Claim or complaint letter.

This is a letter written to convey a complaint a bout a particular issue, product ,service ,behavior
,and propose a possible solution .

11. Adjustment letter .

This is a letter responding to claim or complaint letter by explaining how the complaint or claim
raised in the claim l3etter will be handled or solved . The letter should state the regret remarks,
action taken or to be taken and conclude with a positive note encouraging good relationship with
the organization.

12 . Confirmation letter .

This is a letter written to provide a record a bout the arrangement s made between the sender and
the receiver .It should brief and prepared to confirm an activity due to take place . It is used to
confirm a meeting, journey , conference e.t.c

13. Acknowledgment letter.

This is a letter prepared to show that something has received where written reco9rds are needed.

14. Promotion letter.

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This is a letter prepared by the employer or organization to an employee when the employee is
given a high or letter position. It should specify the new job title, duties, responsibilities,
reporting channel, remunerations and benefits.

15. Resignation letter.

This is a letter written by the employee when an employee is no longer interested in the job , It
is written to inform the employee that the current employee is leaving the assigned duties
according to own will . It should explain the reason why the employee is resigning.

16. Warning letter.

This is a letter prepared by the officer in charge of workers to the employee whose behavior is
contradicting with the job description or rules and regulation of the organization.

17. Any other letter.

MEMO WRITING
A memo is a document prepared in the organization to communicate various
issues to internal members of the organization .
A memo can be brief or detailed depending on the issue to be communicated
PARTS OF A MEMO
8. TITLE. This part shows the name of the organization or the word ‘memo’
9. DATE. This shows the date on which the memo is prepared
10. TO . this part outlines the details of the intended receiver
11. FROM. This part outlines the details or the name of the sender of memo
12. SUBJECT. This indicates the main topic or issue to be communicated in the
memo.
13. BODY. this describes in details the issue to be communicated to the receiver
of the memo.
14. Name of the sender and signature.

BUSINESS REPORTS

Business report is an objective, impartial and planned presentation of facts about a particular
issue(s) to one or more persons for a specific business purpose.

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Reports are about issues, situations, progress, results, events, investigation etc that is going on
within and outside the organisation. The purpose of reports is to help understand business
situations, carry out operational and technical assignments, plan procedures and activities, solve
problems and to make executive decisions.

IMPORTANCE OF BUSINESS REPORTS

1) Reports provide information for decision making

Organizations today operate in a highly competitive environment therefore needs
information in order to plan, control, organize and direct activities within an organisation.
2) Reports help management to cope-up with problems of time and distance
Organizations today are increasingly operating national and international branches with
established officers, markets and plants, managers therefore should rely on information
provided by distant personnel through business reports.
3) Provides technical information needed by organisations
Firms employ experts and consultants to investigate on modern technology so that quality
products and services are produced which can compete favorably on the market. Findings
about technology and market conditions are presented to managers in various reports.
4) Provides evidence and reference
Reports serve as permanent record which is used whenever needed therefore they are
compiled or prepared periodically to provide a basis for comparing performance results in
the organisation.
5) Provides innovative ideas which help the organisation to manage change
Reports contains or provides facts about production, markets and products in general
which form a basis for innovation.
6) Reports provide information which is used to solve a given problem in an organisation.
7) Business reports are used as an internal tool for effective communication. Work results
are communicated to supervisors and to top management.
8) Business reports are also used to obtain information regarding market conditions and
this helps the organisation to determine the level of output to be put on the market

MOVEMENT OF REPORTS IN AN ORGANISATION

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Business reports move upwards to supervisors, managers and policy makers, move downwards
to those who do the work or duties and implement policies (vertical movement of reports).

Business reports also move outwards i.e. outside the organisation to shareholders, customers,
government officials, donor agencies etc.

CHARACTERISTS / FEATURES OF A GOOD REPORT

Precision

A good report should be written precisely in a clear language and straight forward to the purpose.

Accuracy

Business reports should be prepared basing on accurate facts so that its purpose can be
understood.

Relevancy

A good report should be able to solve a particular problem at a particular time or should be
relevant to a given situation.

Reader – oriented / user friendly

Reports should be prepared considering the receiver in mind. Therefore it should be reader
friendly i.e. clear and simple to understand

Objectivity

Business reports should be prepared basing on available facts presented in an objective manner
rather than reflecting the writer’s self interests and opinions.

Logical presentation

Information in a business report should be arranged logically according to order or sequence of

events or activities.

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PRESENTATION / WRITING OF REPORTS

Reports can be presented or written inductively or deductively.

Inductive report writing

Inductive report writing involves the writer to write from specific issues, as outlined in the
discussion, to the general, summarised information, as displayed in the conclusions and
recommendations. It involves writing from specific information to the general conclusions as
below;

 Introduction
 Discussion
 Conclusions
 Recommendations
 References

Such reports are ideal for an audience who has the time to read the report from cover to cover.

Deductive report writing

This is a method of presenting reports where the writer writes from general information or
conclusions to specific information. For example writing from;

 Introduction
 Conclusions
 Recommendations
 Discussion

This type of order is effective when faced with an audience who does not have time to read the
whole document, but can access the conclusions and recommendations.

TYPES OF BUSINESS REPORTS

There are various types of reports from different point of views:

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(a) From the point of view of formalities, there are two types of reports that is;

Formal reports

This is a report prepared in a prescribed form and presented according to established procedure
to a prescribed authority or person in the organisation. For example financial reports, marketing
reports etc.

Informal reports or short reports

These are reports that are prepared on a routine basis in the organisation. For example short audit
reports, sales reports, production reports, progress reports etc.

Features of informal report

1. Used for conveying routine messages

2. Helps in day to day managerial functions
3. Begin directly with conclusions and recommendations.
4. Length is short.
5. Introductory and prefatory parts are not required.
6. Usually follow preprinted form, letter formal or memo format.
7. Basic objectives are to inform and to recommend action.

(b) From the point of view of legal requirements, there are two types of reports called statutory
reports and non-statutory reports.

Statutory reports

These are reports prepared and presented in accordance with the statutory requirements of law or
according to the procedure laid down by a particular law. E.g. Directors report at the general
annual meeting.

Non-statutory report

These are reports which do not have any legal requirements. They are prepared to help
management in formulating policies and decisions.

(c) From the point of view of function, there are three types of reports called informational
reports, analytical and research reports.

Informational reports

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These are reports which are prepared to provide necessary information or findings without
analysis and persuasion. These reports contain functional information with regard to a specific
business activity.

Analytical reports

These are reports which provide well interpreted and analysed information and comments of the
writer or researcher about any issue in the organisation.

Research reports

These are reports which state the findings of a research. They are prepared after enough
investigations and research about key areas of the issue being investigated.

Other types of reports include;

Individual reports

These are reports prepared and submitted to departments by individuals in charge of

departments, sections or process periodically. These reports normally related to performance
results from various departments.

Report by committees

These are reports prepared by a specific selected committee of persons. Some reports are needed
on subjects which do not concern any department or they are so important that it is advisable
associate more than one person with them. They require investigations and research before
writing them.

Routine reports / work reports.

These are reports written mainly by employees describing performance results obtained in the
organisation. These reports are brief ranging between 200 to 500 words in length (average)

These reports are required, written and submitted at regular intervals hence the term routine.

Employees write routine reports as part of their day to day duties (normal work) for which they
are not paid any special allowance for preparing them.

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The specific design and form of a routine report is fixed or standard and the writer cannot easily
change it this is decided by the management and remains the same as long as the need for such a
report exists.

Routine reports include, daily work reports, weekly sales report, monthly financial reports etc

PARTS OF A ROUTINE REPORT

1. TITLE

This indicates what the report is all about or what the writer was instructed to do or to report on.

2. INTRODUCTION

This explains anything that will help the reader to understand the rest of the report

The introduction includes the following;

a) Subject

This is what the reporter is about or why the report was requested.

b) Period to which the report apply

c) The group, office, officer to whom the report is sent
d) Dealing for submitting the report
e) Position, section and department of the employee who wrote the report.

3. THE BODY

This contains actual information or facts required about the activity, work, assignment reported
on.

4. CONCLUSION

This ends the report by summing up the information i.e. main points, benefits, disadvantages etc.

The writer may also make judgment about this information without including personal opinions
or feelings and should not include any few facts. However, he should also add any solution
reached at or action taken.

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The conclusion also contain the following

a) Date of submission
b) Writer’s signature
c) Title or position of the writer
d) Department or section to which the writer relates.

SHORT SPECIAL REPORT

Special reports are about special situations or issues that rarely occur in an organisation.

These reports are written and required when un usual circumstances or issues happen.

These circumstances cannot be predicted simply and in advance.

The average length of a short special report is 400-700 words.

Special reports requires investigation or research before they are written

In this case, special reports are time consuming and expenditure to prepare

Special reports are prepared by specific employees and are given special allowances for them.

Special reports may be about financial viability of a new production investment to decide
whether or not to undertake product development or investment of the basis of the report’s
findings.

It can also be on the causes of workers of strike, outbreak of fire and recommendations on how
such can be avoided in future

PARTS OF A SHORT SPECIAL REPORT

1. TITLE

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This indicates what the report appoint and should indicate the status of the reports (confidential
or urgent)

2. INTRODUCTION

This helps the reader to understand the rest of the report

What is included in the introduction largely depends on the purpose of the report and the needs
of the reader. This part is divided into 3 ie.

a) Back – ground or situation

b) Terms of reference
c) Procedure.

BACK-GROUND

This part outlines the circumstances that led to the writing of the report or history about issues
reported on. This is necessary to clarify the overall picture of the issue for example what
happened that preceded the workers’ strike?

TERMS OF REFERENCE

These are specific instructions that the writer of the report was given by the authority that
requested the report. Terms of reference should contain the following;

The authority who asked the writer to prepare the report. This is indicated with expressions like
“As the Human Resource manager requested”

The subject

This indicates what the report is about. Eg workers’ strike that took place in the last week of
February 2010

Purpose

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This states the primary reason for the preparation of the report. Eg to investigate the causes of the
worker’s strike and to make recommendations

Scope

This shows the boundary of the report or how much of a subject to be investigated. E.g. to
investigate the problems of workers, contribution of management and external factors.

Writer’s identity

This contains the writer’s name, title, section or department.

Deadline for report submission

PROCEDURE

This part briefly describes the following;

a) Information sources and these should be primary and secondary sources.

b) Methods and techniques of gathering data
c) Steps and procedures of carrying out the investigation
d) Subjects to participate in the study
e) Computation and analysis of data
f) Limitations faced during data collection

3. FINDINGS

This is the longest part or section and it contains actual facts collected from the field. It is
arranged logically and systematically with main headings, sub headings and minor headings.

4. CONCLUSION

This part sums up the report and it has mainly two sub-divisions

Conclusion

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This contains a summary of main points of the findings, judgment of the facts presented under
the findings. However this should be objective in nature i.e. should not include writer’s opinions,
feelings or biases

Recommendations

This contains writer’s suggestion about the program of action based on his/her evaluation of the
findings that he/she made under

Conclusions

The writer in this case, should ask self the following questions.

What should be done about the situation investigated?

Who should do it? (The implementer)

When it should be done? (Time)

Where it should be done? (Place)

How it should be done? (Procedure)

How much money needed to do it? (Cost)

Where the money should come from? (Funding source)

Identity of the writer, (Name)

Signature

Position or title

Department or section

PROGRESS REPORTS

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These reports which describe and assess progress made during a particular period. Progress
reports presents work already done, work in progress with other relevant facts and details of
work yet to be completed

These reports are normally prepared when an organisation undertakes, construction work,
modernization of a project, product development etc.

8. Statistical reports.

These are reports made up of largely financial data, mathematical charts, graphs and figures.

PARTS OF A BUSINESS REPORT

Preliminary parts

These parts help the receiver to understand, evaluate and use the report. These parts include the
following;

Cover (binder)

This part protects, the pages of the report

Title page

This shows the title of the reports, name and title of the person to who the report was prepared,
name and department of the writer and the date

Table of contents

This lists down major headings sub headings and page number on which major headings begin.

List if tables, graphs, charts and other illustrations

This gives titles of all tables, charts and other illustrations in the report and page numbers on
which they appear.

Abstract (executive summary)

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This is a concise one page over view of the main points, ideas and findings of the report.

The abstract include the following

 Central problem or issue

 Scope of the report
 Methods of investigating
 Conclusion and recommendation

Body

This contains the following

Introduction

This leads the reader or receiver into the body of the report. Introduction may discuss the origin,
extent and implications of problem, technical terms etc.

Text

This presents evidence and facts; it is the main part of the body which identifies ideas in the
report.

Terminal Section

This brings conclusions and recommendations based on the writer’s analysis and interpretation
of the data contained in the report.

Supplementary parts

These identify sources of information contained in the report. A formal report contains appendix,
Bibliography and an index.

Appendix

This is a special reference section containing supplementary materials such as interview guides,
questionnaires, photographic maps, working papers etc

Bibliography

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This is a list of all printed sources used to prepare the report. E.g. text books, Journals, Novels,
News papers etc.

Index

This is an alphabetical listing of the topics contained in the report. The purpose of an index is to
help the reader to quickly locate the information in the report.

However a table of contents is enough for reference purpose for medium reports.

CLASSIFICATION OF BUSINESS REPORTS

Reports are classified basing on the following factors

Frequency of issue

When reports are issued or prepared at regular intervals, they are referred to as routine or short
special reports.

Formality

Formal reports are detailed in nature and prepared following an established procedure. Informal
reports on the other hand are brief and presented following no established procedure in an
organisation.

Origin

Under this classification, reports are grouped into voluntary, private, authorized, public reports.

Function

Informational reports presents facts and the summary or conclusion while analytical reports
presents facts, analyse and interpret them, draw conclusions and recommendations

Subject

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This is according to the department from which the report originates. E.g. accounts, finance,
production department etc

Format

The memo or letter format is used if the writer was instructed to do so.

The memo format is preferred for routine reports.

Finality

A final report is conclusive in nature while interim reports containing pending confirmation
verification etc.

Audience

Confidential and private reports are meant for a restricted audience and this should be indicated
on the top of every page of the report

Public reports on the other hand can be read by any body

Method of obtaining information

Investigative reports largely defend on second hand means to generate information whereas
eyewitness reports defends on first hand means of information.

INTERVIEWS

An interview is defined as an interaction between two or more parties in order to gain

information to accomplish a pre-determined purpose.

For the success of an interview, both the interviewee and the interviewer must come to a
common agreement in order to achieve a common or a specific purpose.

The interviewer must ask questions in order to get response from the interviewee (respondent)

Interview process requires skills of effective speaking and listening by both parties involved.

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THE INTERVIEW PROCESS

The interview process involves mainly five stages and these include.

1. Preparations

A person to carry out a successful interview should set clearly objectives of the interview.

The objectives may be;

 To get information which can be used to improve performance

 To get information about a particular topic or issue
 To get information in order to assess one’s level of understanding about a particular issue
or topic.

In the process of preparing for the interview, both the respondent and the interviewer should
make research about the key issue or point of the interview, making enough practice or
rehearsals and be aware of the venue.

2. Interview opening

This is a process of approaching a person from whom information is sought (interviewee)

This begins with introducing self by the interviewer to the interviewee and explaining to the
interviewee what is expected of him or her. This involves the interviewer to introduce self to the
respondent in order for the interviewee to gain confidence.

3. Conducting an interview

After the introduction of the interviewer to the interviewee, the interviewer asks questions to the
interviewee and practice effective listening such that responses to and from the interviewee can
be captured and understood clearly.

In this process, the interviewer should use open ended questions which provokes thinking of an
interviewee. For example questioning words such as who, what, where, how, why and when
should be frequently used.

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However, closed questions should not be used widely since they attract yes or no responses or
answers from the interviewee.

4. Closing the interview

This process involves making a summary of information received from the respondent in relation
to the objective of an interview.

In this case, the interviewer should arrange responses from the interviewee according to the order
of questions and should make concluding remarks such as thank you, I will get to you soon, etc.

5. Follow up

This is a process where the interviewer analyses information obtained from the interviewee in
order to take action.

TYPES OF INTERIEWS

Interviews are broadly categorized into two i.e

a) Interviews dominated by exchange of information

b) Interviews dominated by exchange of feelings and emotions.

Interviews dominated by exchange of information

1) Employment interviews

These are interviews carried out by the organisation during recruitment process so as to get best
candidates suitable for a particular job. Employment interviews can be face to face interview,
written interviews or telephone interviews.

Telephone interviews

This is an interaction between two parties using a telephone as the interacting foundation or
ground. This is commonly applied on job interviews.

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Essentially, a telephone interview is simply a situation in which a telephone call is used to create
the foundation for an interactive meeting in which one party is conducting an interview with a
second party.

Many employers conduct telephone interviews to screen candidates for basic qualifications.
Telephone interviews can be challenging because it is more difficult to gain rapport with the
interviewer because the respondent cannot see the interviewer's non-verbal reactions and cues.
Alternatively, the interviewer cannot see respondent’s enthusiastic expressions or professional
appearance. This requires good phone manners, clarity of speech, voice tone and the content of
respondent’s answers.

Guidelines or principles for excelling at a telephone interview

 Treat the phone interview as face-to-face interview.

 Select a quiet, private room or place with a telephone in good working condition.
 Conduct a mock telephone interview with a friend to gain feedback on your voice quality
and speech.
 Before the interview, prepare talking points for the call including value you bring to the
company and specific questions.
 Arrange the following items: your resume, cover letter, copy of application if you
submitted one, highlights of corporate information and brief talking points.
 Breathe deeply and relax. Speak slowly, clearly and with purpose.
 Smile, it changes your speech and the person on the other end can sense it.
 Write down the full names and titles of each call participant.
 Take notes when appropriate.
 Be courteous and try not to speak over the interviewer. If you do, apologize and let the
interviewer continue.
 Support your statements with detailed examples of accomplishments when possible. It is
easy for someone to get distracted on a phone call, so paint a vivid picture to keep the
interviewer interested.
 Explain any pauses in your speech to ponder a question or take notes.

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 If you think of a question or comment while the interviewer is speaking, jot a note on
your talking points list, so you remember it later.
 Offer to provide additional information or answer other questions.
 Before ending the call, be sure you know the next step in the process, and offer to provide
any additional information needed.
 Do not hang up until the interviewer has hung up.
 Promptly send a formal follow-up / thank you message just as you would for a face-to-
face interview.

ADVANTAGES OF TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS

 It is time saving than involving persons in face to face interview

 It is cost saving especially when it is brief
 It can give chance to the interviewee to refer quickly to various documents such as
resume, cover letter, and any other document during the interview which may not be
possible with face to face interview
 It save time and cost of the interviewee travelling to the interview venue in case of face to
face interview
 It does not require the interviewee to be smart as for the case of face to face interview

DISADVANTAGES OF TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS

 They are expensive in terms of telephone charges (air time) especially for lengthy
interviews
 It is commonly affected with network problems which limits the free flow of
communication
 It requires telephone management skills i.e. phone etiquette which many interviewees and
interviewers lack
 It may not give time to the interviewee to think properly what to answer because they are
quick and faster.
 It does not allow proper use non verbal communication tools such as gestures and facial
expressions.

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PREPARATIONS FOR A SUCCESSFUL EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW

By the interviewer

1. The interviewer should determine the purpose or the objective of the interview. In this
case, the interviewer should clearly define the objective of the interview in advance.
2. The interviewer should avail enough information to him or herself about the topic to be
discussed with the interviewee, the interviewer should decide on the job specification and
job description.
3. The interviewer should decide on the right place (interview venue) and time for the
interview, the venue should be well arranged with adequate facilities and should be free
from any interruptions.
4. The interviewer should notify the interviewees about the interview, venue and time for
the interview in advance so as to enable them prepare themselves well.
5. During the opening of the interview, the interviewer should introduce self to the
interviewee and create a relaxed environment for the interviewee to feel at home and
have confidence.
6. Interpersonal communication should be encouraged during the interview process in order
to allow each party involved confident and seek clarity in case of a need.
7. The interview should be closed by suggesting the action to be taken after the interview
e.g. we shall get back to you soon.

By the interviewee (Respondent)

1. The interviewee should collect enough information about the likely topic or matter to be
discussed. This is because the interview is an information sharing process.
2. The interviewee should have all details of personal data and academic or work
achievements i.e. He or she must have details in the resume, cover letter and the
application letter.
3. The interviewee should have the details about the venue and time of the interview in
advance. The interviewee should make a pilot (pre-visit) study to venue of the interview
in order to establish how long it takes to be accessed in time.

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4. The interviewee should be punctual and it is advisable to report at the interview venue at
least 30 minutes before the interview time. This helps to avoid delay and reduce pressure
or panic during the interview.
5. The interviewee should make enough practice or rehearsals by engaging other persons to
give a pre-interview session. This is done to enable the interviewee to gain confidence,
check quality of the voice and body language.
6. The interviewee should portray good communication skills of especially listening,
writing and speaking skills. The interviewee should also practice properly non-verbal
communication tools (cues) such as eye contact, voice tone and gestures.
7. The interviewee should have self confidence of passing an interview. In this case an
interview should avoid sweating, rushing to answering and therefore should be calm, cool
and confident.
8. The interviewee should be straight forward and direct to questions. This removes doubt
from the interviewer that the interviewee is incapable of giving relevant information.
9. The interviewee should express eagerness to learn from the interviewer and in case of any
mistake, the interviewee should say sorry and let the interview go on.
10. The interviewee should appear smart at the interview. The interviewee should avoid bad
habits such as chewing, smoking while giving information.
11. The interviewee should try to answer all questions being asked to him or her. However,
if there is no immediate answer for the question, further investigations or research can be
carried out if there is a need.

2) Orientation interviews/Induction interviews

These are interviews conducted with the new staff in an organisation so as to obtain information
about the new job and how it should be done. It is intended to give relevant information to the
new recruits on the new environment in the organisation.

3. Performance appraisal interviews.

These are interviews which evaluates employee’s performance during a given period of time.

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These interviews are mainly conducted by supervisors and employees. They are indented to
measure performance of workers, finding out challenges workers face during performance of
their duties and areas of weakness that require attention.

Interviews which are dominated by exchange of feelings and emotions

i) Counseling interviews

These are interviews carried out by the organization to guide employees and make them
appreciate working conditions and challenges.

Counseling is important because it develops employees to face the realities of the job and to
withstand job pressure and tension.

ii) Disciplinary interviews

These are interviews conducted to correct any misconduct of employees in an organisation.

However, there must written rules and regulations that regulate employees’ behavior while in an
organisation.

PUBLIC SPEAKING OR ORAL PRESENTATION

This is a verbal communication tool used to address a group of people and share information
public speaking is a skill which is learnt and it is supposed to be improved upon constantly
because majority of the people can not address the public.

For public speaking to be successful, the speaker should adopt a good presentation style that suits
the purpose, subject and the audience

TYPES OF SPEECHES

1. Briefings

This is a type of a speech which ic concise and factual in nature.

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The purpose is to direct or inform listeners how to perform a certain procedure or activity and to
inform them about ma mission or concept.

2. Lecture speech

This is a speech intended to teach listeners about a particular issue dor topic. This type of speech
is more common schools, churches, mosques etc.

Lecture speeches are categorized into two;

a) Formal lectures

This is where the communication is one sided and participation of the listeners for example
teaching lectures, church lectures etc

b) Informal lectures

these are speeches presented to a small group of audience which allows participation between the
instructor (speaker) and the listeners.

3. Informative speeches

These are speeches involving narration of events or situations whwich does not involve teaching.

4. Persuassive speeches

These are speeches designed to move listerners to belive the subject matter. Eg political speeches
during the process of searching for votes

5. Entertainment speeches

These are speeches which gives enjoyment (pleasure) to the listerners. The listerners in this case
are impressed and excited about the speech eg Marriage ceremony speeches, parties etc.

MAKING/PLANNING AN EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION

Effective Oral presentation requires the following;

1. Preparations

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This involves a number of activities and these include;

a) Determining the purpose or objectives and these include;

b) Selecting the topic or subject
c) Making enough research on the topic/subject
d) Selecting the audience (target group of people)
e) Studying the audience
f) Selecting the language
g) Selecting the method of delivery
h) Determining the venue and time of presentation
2. Give of self

This required the speaker to use personal and professional experiences with the audience.

However, these experiences should support or emphasize the point under consideration

This helps to bring the reality to the audience of what is being discussed

3. Creation of suitable or good first impression this involves the speaker to focus on the
massage, use of suitable gestures and walking style or patterns during the presentation
4. Paying attention to all details of the message

This requires the speaker to bring all details necessary to the topic under consideration e.g. the
use of visual aids is of a great importance where applicable

AUDIENCE

This is a group of people who are listening to the speaker or presenter.

For successful presentation, the speaker should analyse the audience in the following ways;

1. Determining the type and nature of the audience

This involves the speaker determining the number of listeners, their expectations and their sex.

This helps the speaker to plan for the audience in terms of the venue, materials to be used etc.

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2. Understanding how knowledgeable the audience is about the subject or subject. It helps
the speaker to determine where to begin from when presenting the facts
3. Demographic analysis

The presenter should understand the age composition, sex, education back ground and social
status of the audience. This helps the presenter to use suitable illustrations and to avoid a
business language during the presentation.

4. The presenter should establish why the audience is attending the presentation. If the
audience was forced to attend, the speaker should use appealing language to motivate and
develop their interest.
5. The presenter should determine the needs of the audience such that are fulfilled during
the presentation. In this case, visual aids should be applied to make the audience fully
understand the message.
6. The presenter should position him/herself where the audience can exercise direct eye
contact. This helps focusing attention to the presenter.
7. The presenter should manage time properly such that the time budgeted for the
presentation is used well.
8. The presenter should be flexible during the presentation process. This requires the
presenter to use various delivery styles and creating some motivation tools so as not
create boredom to the audience.

METHODS OF ORAL PRESENTATION

a) Memorization

This is a method where the speaker retrieves information stored in the brain (head) for some
time.

This method is commonly used by presenters who cannot adequately think for themselves

The methods requires enough preparation and therefore the speaker cannot present in immediate
situations

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Memorization encourages cram work and therefore the presenter cannot adjust to a particular
situation.

b) Manuscript reading

This is where the presenter read from written (manuscript) information. Therefore the
presentation is done by reading the message to the audience.

However, the, method prevents the speaker to be creative and flexible during the presentation.

c) Imprompt speaking;

This is a method where the presenter speaks without speech preparations.

This requires a diversity of communication skills in order to make a good speech and the method
is commonly used by experienced speakers

It requires high degree of creativity and flexibility

The method is used commonly at wedding ceremonies, political rallies etc.

REASONS FOR POOR ORAL PRESENTATIONS

1. Lack of adequate preparations.

When the speaker has limited content to present, the speech will remain pending and the
audience needs may not be realized.

2. Lack of self confidence

The speaker may fail to deliver the massage as planned. Lack of self confidence creates panic,
fear and sweating on the side of the speaker.

3. Lack of appropriate visual aids

Visual aids are items or materials used by the presenter to emphasize the point or content.

It may be in form of diagrams, pliscal items etc. however, visual aids should be used where
necessary and some times takes a lot of time.

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4. Un conducive environment in form of noise that presents the audience to concentrate on

the massege.
5. Hostile audience

Sometime the audience wants to hear what they want hear and any divergency, it becames hostile
hence preventing the speaker from making a good presentation.

6. Lack of enough knowledge about the subject matter. This prevents the speaker from
making a detailed speech and sometimes fails to answer questions from the audience.
7. Limited time

Sometimes the speaker may not have enough time to complete the speech as planed. The
presenter may be forced to be brief or sometimes skip or leave some concepts.

NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

This refers to any human action or behavior that conveys a message from one person to
another without a spoken or written word.

The behavior or action should have a common meaning attached by both the sender and the
receiver.

TOOLS OF NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION

1. FACIAL EXPRESSIONS

These reveals the inner feelings and emotions of a person. The human face is important tool
or instrument of communication by use of the eyes, nose, eyebrows, mouth, movement of the
jaws etc.

Such parts are sensitive in conveying emotions, thoughts and feelings.

2. EYE CONTACT

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This is used mainly during interpersonal communication. It is used mainly to capture

attention, to show seriousness and to show that a person is interested in the communication.

However, when a person puts on a hard look or looks down, may imply that he/she is not
interested.

IMPORTANCE OF EYE CONTACT

a) Effective eye contact enables the speaker to get immediate feed back from the receiver of
the message.
b) Eye contact enhances speaker’s credibility and audibility. This means that the message
c) It promotes attention to both the speaker and listeners.
d) It enables the listener to listen attentively in order to get exact meaning
e) It shows that a person is interested in the communication

3. GESTURES

A particular meaning or message between individuals. Such actions may include;

Hand shaking implying greetding\hand clap implying pay attention, calling etc

However, gestures have different meanings to different people in various regions

In this case therefore gestures should be used after analyzing the meaning attached to them in
a particular region before using them.

4. POSTURES

This refers to conscious or un conscious decision about how people sit, walk, stand or lay
down.

Postures portrays a lot of communication during communication process.

5. VOICE TONE

This refers to the style in which the voice is structured or projected. This may include voice
pause, stereo tping etc.

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Voice tone is a verbal communication instrument but the style of delivering the message is an
instrument of non-verbal communication.

ADVANTAGES OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

It is favours the deaf and mute

It can be used to confirm or add a meaning to a spoken word.

It can be used to contradict verbal messages and this is done un consciously or to pretend.

It helps to provide appropriate physical feedback to the sender of the message. This can be in
form of a smile, node of the head etc.

It can create the desired impression to a message eg a big hug can imply that some one is
caring, loving and happy.

It can created a desired at mosphere or conditions for effective communication. Eg smiling

can imply that there is a friendly relationship between the two parties involved in the
communication.

It can re-inforce the spoken word with appropriate indications of how people are feeling or it
can show seriousness.

Helps to acquire an immediate feedback which helps the speaker to adjust accordingly.

It can sometimes complements effective listening such that the real meaning of the message
is obtained egDirect eye contact is vital during the listening process.

It sometimes since it is not too illustrative in nature.

It favours the literates and illiterates and therefore all parties involved in the communication
get satisfaction.

It can be used to observe order or rules for example a student who wishes to ask a question,
first raise the hand before asking.

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John Garry 0954450486 Cert & Diploma