1

Module 5
• Biomass Power Plants: Biomass as a renewable energy source: types and
characteristics, Conversion technologies: combustion, gasification, and anaerobic
digestion, biomass feedstock selection and availability, Environmental impacts and
sustainability of biomass power plants, Integration of biomass power plants with other
energy systems.
• Hydrogen Energy: Properties of Hydrogen with respected to its utilization as a
renewable form of energy, sources of hydrogen, production of hydrogen, electrolysis
of water, thermal decomposition of water, thermos Chemical production biochemical
production.
Organic matter derived from biological organisms (Plants, algae, animals etc…) are called
Biomass. The energy obtained from biomass is called Biomass energy. Biomass energy
resources are available from botanical plants, vegetation, algae, animals and organisms living
on land or in water. Biomass, if left to decompose in open air, is acted upon by aerobic bacteria
(bacteria that require oxygen for their survival and growth) to produce mainly CO2, NH3, etc.
Thus total carbon component completely get oxidized to produce CO2 and no fuel is produced.

Types and Characteristics

Types of Biomass:
• Wood and Agricultural
Products: Wood, crop residues, and
other agricultural waste are major
sources.
• Solid Waste: Municipal solid waste
and other organic waste can be
used.
• Landfill Gas and Biogas: Anaerobic
digestion of organic waste produces
biogas, a source of fuel.
• Energy Crops: Specific crops are
grown for energy utilization.
• Natural Biomass: Biomass
produced naturally without human
intervention.
• Residual Biomass: Organic waste
from human activities, like industrial or agricultural waste.
• Biomass from livestock: Animal manure can be used as a source of biomass energy.

Characteristics
• Calorific Value- The heat value, or amount of heat available in a fuel (kJ/kg), is one of
the most important characteristics of a fuel because it indicates the total amount of
energy that is available in the fuel.
• Moisture Content - A low moisture level in the fuel is usually preferable because high-
moisture fuels burn less readily and provide less useful heat per unit mass.
• Ash content - Should be low for efficient combustion; high ash causes fouling and
slagging. Slagging and fouling are problems that occur when the ash begins to melt,
causing deposits inside the combustion equipment.

REPP Dept.ME, VCET, Puttur

 2

• Volatile Matter - Indicates ease of ignition and burning rate. Fuels with "high volatiles"
will tend to vaporize before combusting, whereas fuels with low volatiles will burn
primarily as glowing "char.”
• Fuel Size and Density - Loose biomass has low density; densification improves
handling and storage. Fuel size also dictates the type of handling equipment that is used.
The wrong size fuel will have an impact on the efficiency of the combustion process
and may cause jamming or damage to the handling equipment. Smaller-sized fuel is
more common for commercial-scale systems because smaller fuel is easier to use in
automatic feed systems and also allows for finer control of the burn rate.
• Renewable - Biomass is a renewable resource as it can be replenished by biological
processes like photosynthesis.
• Abundant and Diverse - Biomass resources are widely available and diverse, including
wood, agricultural residues, and waste materials.
• Direct Combustion - Biomass can be burned directly to produce heat or electricity.
• Conversion to Biofuels - Biomass can be processed into biofuels like ethanol and
biodiesel.
• Carbon Neutrality - Emits CO₂ absorbed during plant growth; ideally results in net-
zero emissions

Conversion technologies: Combustion, Gasification, and Anaerobic digestion

Biomass can be converted into different forms of energy by using various processes. Many
factors affect the choice of the process like quantity of biomass feedstock, desired energy form,
environmental standards, economic conditions, and project specific factors. Biomass can be
converted into three main products: power or heat generation, transportation fuels and chemical
feedstock.

Biomass conversion technologies are shown in tree following chart.

Thermo-chemical conversion
• In thermo-chemical conversion, energy is produces by applying heat and chemical
processes. There are four thermo-chemical conversion processes, which are given
below.
Combustion process
• Combustion is an exothermic chemical reaction, in which biomass is burned in the
presence of air. In this process chemical energy which is stored in the biomass is
converted in the mechanical and electrical energies. This process is suitable for dry
biomass containing moisture less than 50%. Biomass is burned at the temperature of
800-1000 °C. This process is used for domestic applications as well as commercially in
biomass power plants in order to produce electricity.

REPP Dept.ME, VCET, Puttur

 3

Pyrolysis Process
• It is the process of conversion of biomass to liquid (bio-oil), solid (charcoal) and
gaseous (fuel gases) products by heating in the absence of air at 500 °C. There are two
types of pyrolysis: Fast pyrolysis, conventional pyrolysis and slow pyrolysis. Fast
pyrolysis process has high heating value and heat transfer rate and completes within
seconds. Conventional pyrolysis process is the process in which mostly carbon (35%)
is leaved as residue. Slow pyrolysis takes more time than fast pyrolysis, it also has low
temperature and heating values.
Gasification process
• In biomass gasification, charcoal, wood chips, energy crops, forestry residues,
agricultural waste and other wastes are transformed into flammable gases at high
temperature (800-1000°C). In this process fuel (biomass) reacts with a gasifying
medium such as oxygen enriched air, pure oxygen, steam or a combination of both. The
product gas can be used as a feedstock (syngas) in the production of chemicals like
methanol. One promising concept is that gas turbines convert the gaseous fuel to
electricity with a high overall conversion efficiency. The integration of gasification and
combustion/ heat recovery ensures 40-50% conversion efficiency for a 30-60 MW.

Updraught or Counter current gasifier

An Updraught Gasifier, also known as a counter current gasifier, is a type of biomass gasifier
where the solid biomass fuel is fed from the top of the reactor and moves downward by gravity.
While the gasifying agent—typically air, steam, or oxygen—is introduced from the bottom and
moves upward.
This opposite flow of fuel and gasifying agent characterizes it as a counter current system.
Updraught or Counter-Current Gasification involves several distinct zones, each playing a
crucial role in converting solid biomass into producer gas. These zones are vertically arranged
in the gasifier and interact through the counter-current flow of fuel (downward) and gasifying
agents (upward).
Here's a detailed explanation of each zone and its function:
• At the top is the drying zone, where the incoming biomass is preheated by rising hot
gases, leading to the evaporation of moisture. This zone typically operates at 100–
200°C.

REPP Dept.ME, VCET, Puttur

 4

• Beneath it lies the pyrolysis zone, where the dried biomass undergoes thermal
decomposition in the absence of oxygen, generating volatile compounds, tar, and char
at temperatures ranging from 200–600°C.
• Below this is the reduction zone, which is crucial for the formation of combustible
gases. Here, char reacts with carbon dioxide and water vapor to form carbon monoxide
and hydrogen (syngas) through endothermic reactions, with temperatures between 800–
1000°C.
• At the bottom is the combustion zone, where a limited supply of air causes partial
combustion of the biomass, generating carbon dioxide, water vapor, and heat—this heat
is essential to drive the endothermic reactions in the upper zones. This zone can reach
temperatures of up to 1200°C.
The counter-current design allows for high heat utilization but results in high tar content in
the product gas, making it more suitable for direct heat applications rather than power
generation unless proper gas cleaning systems are used.

Downdraught or co-current gasifiers

Downdraught or co-current gasifiers are a type of fixed-
bed gasifier where both the biomass fuel and the
gasifying agent (air or oxygen) enter the reactor from the
top and move downward in the same direction. This co-
current flow pattern leads to a cleaner gas output
compared to updraught systems.
The internal structure of the gasifier is divided into
several functional zones, each contributing to the
conversion of solid biomass into combustible gas
(syngas).
At the top is the drying zone, where the
descending biomass loses its moisture due to the
heat from below, typically operating at
temperatures of 100–200°C.
• Below this lies the pyrolysis zone, where thermal decomposition of the dried biomass
occurs in the absence of oxygen, breaking it down into volatile gases, tar, and char at
around 300–600°C.
• Next is the oxidation (combustion) zone, where a controlled amount of air supports
partial combustion of the pyrolysis products and char, producing heat and generating
gases like CO₂ and H₂O, with temperatures reaching up to 1100–1400°C.
• Finally, in the reduction zone, the hot combustion products react with the remaining
char through endothermic reactions to form CO, H₂, and CH₄, which are the main
components of syngas.
One of the major advantages of downdraught gasifiers is their low tar output, as the volatiles
and tars released during pyrolysis pass through the high-temperature oxidation and reduction
zones, which helps crack and burn them off. This results in cleaner gas, suitable for engines
and other sensitive applications.
However, downdraught gasifiers require uniform, low-moisture biomass and have relatively
limited fuel flexibility.
Despite this, they are widely used in small to medium-scale decentralized energy systems for
both thermal and power generation purposes due to their simplicity and cleaner gas production.

REPP Dept.ME, VCET, Puttur

 5

Cross-draught gasifier
A cross-draught gasifier is a type of fixed-bed gasifier in which the air (or oxidizing agent) is
introduced from one side of the reactor, and the producer gas is collected from the opposite
side, creating a horizontal or lateral flow of gases through the fuel bed. Unlike updraught and
downdraught gasifiers where the flow is vertical, in cross-draught systems the air and gas travel
perpendicularly to the downward-moving solid biomass fuel. This unique design leads to a
much localized combustion zone, resulting in high temperatures (up to 1500°C) in a small area.
The gasification process in a cross-
draught gasifier is divided into similar
functional zones as other types: drying,
pyrolysis, oxidation, and reduction.
However, these zones are not clearly
layered vertically; instead, they tend to
overlap and exist in a more
concentrated lateral region. The
biomass is fed from the top, and as it
moves down due to gravity, it interacts
with the horizontally moving air and
gases.

One of the key advantages of cross-

draught gasifiers is their rapid response
to load changes, making them suitable
for applications requiring quick startup
and shutdown, such as in small engines
or intermittent energy systems.
They are also compact in design, making them space-efficient and suitable for small-scale
installations. However, they tend to produce higher levels of tar and particulate matter,
requiring more extensive gas cleaning.
Cross-draught gasifiers are best suited for dense, high-calorific fuels like charcoal, and they
have historically been used in systems such as gas-powered vehicles and small industrial heat
applications. Their simple construction, fast response, and small size make them attractive,
although the tar content and limited fuel flexibility are notable limitations for wider adoption.
systems.

Liquefaction process
• It is the process in which biomass is converted into liquid phase at low temperatures
(250-350 °C) and high pressures (100-200 bar), usually with a high hydrogen partial
pressure and catalysts to increase the rate of reaction. This process is used to get
maximum liquid yields with higher quality than from the pyrolysis process. The product
have higher heating value and lower oxygen content which makes the fuel chemically
stable.

Bio-Chemical conversion
Biochemical conversion makes use of the enzymes of bacteria and other living organisms to
break down biomass and convert it into fuels. This conversion process includes anaerobic
digestion and fermentation.

Anaerobic Digestion

REPP Dept.ME, VCET, Puttur

 6

Stage I: First of all the original organic matter containing complex compounds e.g.
carbohydrate, protein, fats etc. is broken through the influence of water (known as hydrolysis)
to simple water soluble compounds. The polymers (large molecules) are reduced to monomers
(basic molecules).The process takes about a day at 25 °C in an active digester.

Stage II: The micro-organisms of anaerobic and facultative (that can live and grow with or
without oxygen) groups, together known as acid formers produce mainly acetic and propionic
acids. This stage also takes about one day at 25 °C. Much of CO2 is released in this stage.

Stage III: Anaerobic bacteria, also known as methane formers slowly digest the products
available from second stage to produce methane, carbon dioxide, small amount of hydrogen
and trace amount of other gases. The process takes about two weeks’ time to complete at 25
°C. This third stage, i.e. methane formation stage is carried out strictly by the action of
anaerobic bacteria.

Fermentation process
Fermentation is an anaerobic process that breaks down the glucose within organic materials. It
is a series of chemical reactions that convert sugars to ethanol. The basic fermentation process
involves the conversion of a plant’s glucose (or carbohydrate) into an alcohol or acid. Yeast or
bacteria are added to the biomass material, which feed on the sugars to produce ethanol and
carbon dioxide. The ethanol is distilled and dehydrated to obtain a higher concentration of
alcohol to achieve the required purity for the use as automotive fuel. The solid residue from
the fermentation process can be used as cattle-feed and in the case of sugar cane; the bagasse
can be used as a fuel for boilers or for subsequent gasification.

Operational Parameters of Biogas Plant

The operation of biogas plant or digestion process is affected by a number of factors, which
are to be optimized to obtain best results:
(a)Temperature Methane forming bacteria work best in temperature ranges 20–55 °C.
Digestion at higher temperature proceeds more rapidly than at lower temperature, with gas yield
rates doubling at about every 5 °C increase in temperature. In cold climate regions the digester
has to be heated to about 35 °C, in most cases by using part of the biogas produced. Sometimes
solar thermal collectors are used for heating. The gas production decreases sharply below 20 °C
and almost stops at 10 °C.
(b)Pressure A minimum pressure of 6–10 cm of water column, i.e. 1.2 bar (abs) is considered
ideal for proper functioning of plant and it should never be allowed to exceed 40–50 cm of water
column. Excess pressure inhibits release of gas from slurry. It also leads to leakage in masonry
through micro pores. Even normal gas taps and pipe joints start leaking due to excess pressure.
(c)Solid to Moisture Ratio in the Biomass Water is essential for survival and activity of
microorganisms, hydrolysis process and activity of extra cellular enzymes. The optimum total
solid concentration is 7 to 9 per cent.

REPP Dept.ME, VCET, Puttur

 7

(d) pH Value In the initial acid forming stage of the digestion process pH value may be around
6 or less. However, during methane formation stage, pH value of 6.5 to 7.5 is maintained, as
methane-forming bacteria are very sensitive to acidity. Too much and sudden deviation from
this value is likely to cause imbalance in bacteria population affecting the production of gas.
(e)Feeding Rate If the digester is fed with too much raw material at a time, acids will accumulate
and digestion process may stop. Also faster feeding rate will not help increase the gas
production.
(f)Carbon to Nitrogen (C/N) Ratio and Other Nutrients in Biomass A digester is culture of bacteria
feeding upon organic wastes. For optimal growth and activity of bacteria, it is essential that
required nutrients are available in correct chemical form and concentration. The fact that
anaerobic bacteria use carbon 25 to 30 times faster than nitrogen necessitates the optimum C:
N ratio as 30:1 for maximum microbiological activity.
(g)Seeding of Biomass with Bacteria To start and accelerate fermentation process, small
amount of digested slurry, which contains methane-forming bacteria, is added to the freshly
charged plant. This is known as seeding.
(h)Mixing or Stirring Mixing has three important effects: (a) maintains uniformity in
substrate concentration, temperature and other environmental factors (b) minimizes the
formation of scum at the surface and (c) prevents the deposition of solids at the bottom.
(i)Retention Time Retention time is the time duration for which the slurry remains in the plant
or the time that is available for biodigestion. It is determined bythe volume of digester divided
by the volume of slurry added per day.
(j)Effect of Toxic Substances High concentration of ammonia, antibiotics, pesticides,
detergents, heavy metals like chromium, copper, nickel, zinc etc. are toxic to bacteria
responsible for biodigestion.

Classification of Biogas Plants

Biogas plants are mainly classified as: (i) batch type and (ii) continuous type. Continuous
type plants are further classified into (a) floating drum (constant pressure) type and (b) fixed
dome type (constant volume) type.

Batch type plant is charged at 50–60 days interval. Once charged, it starts supplying the gas after
8–10 days and continues to do so for about 40–50 days till the process of digestion is
completed. Afterwards it is emptied and recharged. A battery of digesters are charged and
emptied one by one in a synchronous manner to maintain regular supply of gas through
common gasholder. The outline of such an arrangement is shown in Fig. The installation and
operation of such plants are capital and labor intensive and are not economical unless operated
on large scale. Such plants are installed in European countries. These plants do not suit to
conditions in Indian rural areas.

REPP Dept.ME, VCET, Puttur

 8

Floating Drum (Constant Pressure) Type Biogas Plants

Numerous models of floating drum type biogas plants are developed in various countries. Most
representative of this type is the KVIC model (Khadi Village Industries Commission),
developed in India, shown in Fig.
It has an inverted mild steel drum to work as
gasholder. This is the most expensive
component of the plant. The drum floats
either direct on fermentation slurry or in a
water jacket of its own. Most Indian plants
now have a pair of central guide pipes. The
gasholder is free to rise or fall depending on
the production and use of gas. It is also free
to rotate on its axis. Gasholder rotation will
also be useful as a device to break the scum
in the digester. A flexible hosepipe is
attached at the top of the gasholder for gas
dispersion. The gas passes through a moisture
trap before supplying to the utility/house.

The digester is a deep circular pit or a well,

built of bricks, mortar and plaster, with a
partition wall. The bifurcation of digestion
chamber through partitioning wall provides
optimum conditions for growth of acid formers and methane formers as the requirement of pH
values for these bacteria are different. Therefore, this plant operates very well with good biogas
yield. The underground structure helps minimize the heat loss from the plant and the
cylindrical shape has better structural strength.

Advantages:
• It has less scum trouble.
• No separate pressure equalizing devices are required,
• In it the danger-of mixing oxygen with the gas to form an explosive mixture is
minimized.
• Higher gas production per m3 of the digester volume is achieved.
• No problem of gas leakage.
• Constant gas pressure.

Disadvantage:
• It has higher cost, as cost is dependent steel and cement.
• It has poor insulation against heat and hence it troubles in colder regions and periods..
• Gas holder requires painting once or twice in a year.
• The overall maintenance cost of the plant is more compared to fixed dome type.

Fixed Dome (Constant Volume) Type Biogas Plants

This plant is more economical as only masonry work is required. Gas pressure in the dome
varies depending on the production/consumption rate. By construction a dome structure is very
strong for outside pressures but a weak one for inner pressures. As gas pressure is exerted from
inside out, the dome structure may fail if proper care is not taken in its construction.

REPP Dept.ME, VCET, Puttur

 9

The dome is constructed underground to

maintain pressure over it. Skilled masonry
workmanship is required for construction of
dome. In case of any leakages/cracks the plant
may fail. The slurry enters from inlet and the
digested slurry is collected in a displacement
tank. Stirring is required if raw material is crop
residue. There is no bifurcation in the digester
chamber and therefore the gas production is
somewhat less as compared to floating point
design. The gas produced is stored in the dome
and displaces the liquids in inlet and outlet. The
gas occupies about 10 per cent of the volume of
the digester. As complete plant is constructed
underground, the temperature tends to remain constant and is often considerably higher than
ambient temperature in winter.

Advantages:
• It has low cost compared to floating drum type.
• It has no corrosion problem.
• The plant is well insulated against the heat and hence constant temperature can be
maintained,
• Almost all bio mass can be fed.
• No maintenance.

Disadvantages:
• This plant construction requires skilled masons.
• Gas production per cum of the digester volume is less.
• Scum formation is problem no stirring arrangement.
• It has variable gas pressure.

Advantages of Bio gas

• Biogas is Eco-Friendly - Biogas is a renewable, as well as a clean, source of energy.
• Biogas Generation Reduces Soil and Water Pollution - Overflowing landfills don’t only
spread foul smells- they also allow toxic liquids to drain into underground water
sources.
• Biogas Generation Produces Organic Fertilizer
• It’s A Simple and Low-Cost Technology
• Healthy Cooking Alternative for Developing Areas

Disadvantages
• Handling of effluent Slurry
• Temperature variation
• Improper loading of slurry
• pH and Volatile fatty adds
• Leakage of Gas

REPP Dept.ME, VCET, Puttur

 10

Hydrogen is the simplest element. An atom of hydrogen consists of only one proton and one
electron. It is also the most plentiful element in the universe. Despite its simplicity and
abundance, hydrogen doesn’t occur naturally as a gas on the Earth – it is always combined
with other elements. Water, for example, is a combination of hydrogen and oxygen (H2O).

Hydrogen holds the potential to provide clean, reliable and affordable energy supply that can
enhance economy, environment and security. It is flexible and can be used by all sectors of
economy. It is non-toxic and recyclable. Due to these qualities it is considered to be an ideal
energy carrier in the foreseeable future. An energy carrier moves and delivers energy in a
usable form to consumers.

Hydrogen can be produced by using a variety of energy sources, such as solar, nuclear and
fossil fuels and can be converted to useful energy forms efficiently and without detrimental
environmental effects. When burned as fuel or converted to electricity it joins with oxygen to
produce energy with water as the only emission. When air is used for combustion instead
of oxygen, some NOx is also produced, which can be reduced by lowering the combustion
temperature.

Despite all these benefits, realization of hydrogen economy faces multiple challenges. Unlike
gasoline and natural gas, hydrogen has no existing, large scale supporting infrastructure.
Building of such an infrastructure will require major investment. Although hydrogen
production, storage and delivery techniques are currently in commercial use by the
chemical and refining industries, existing hydrogen storage and conversion technologies are
too costly for widespread use in energy applications.

Properties of Hydrogen
Basic Properties:
• Chemical symbol (H₂): Hydrogen usually exists as a pair of atoms – H₂ – because single
hydrogen atoms are unstable alone.
• Atomic number (1): It's the first element in the periodic table and the simplest – just one
proton and one electron.
• Molecular weight (2.016 g/mol): Very light compared to other gases, making it the
lightest molecule.
• Physical state: At room temperature, hydrogen is a gas.
• Color, odor, taste: Hydrogen is invisible, odorless, and tasteless, so it can’t be detected
without sensors.
• Density: It’s about 14 times lighter than air, which is why it rises quickly when released.
• Boiling/Melting point: Hydrogen becomes liquid only at extremely low temperatures
(below –250°C).
Chemical & Combustion Properties:
• Flammable: Hydrogen burns very easily in air, which is why it's useful as a fuel—but
also needs careful handling.
• Combustion: When hydrogen burns with oxygen, it forms water and releases a lot of
energy (heat).
• Explosive in air: If hydrogen mixes with air in the right proportions and gets a spark, it
can explode.
• Non-toxic but asphyxiating: It won’t poison you, but if it replaces oxygen in the air, you
could suffocate.

REPP Dept.ME, VCET, Puttur

 11

Energy Properties:
• Energy by mass: Hydrogen has the highest energy content per kilogram of any fuel—
great for weight-sensitive uses.
• Energy by volume: It has low energy per liter as a gas, so it must be compressed or
liquefied to store enough fuel.
• Octane rating: A measure of how efficiently and cleanly fuel burns in an engine.
Hydrogen’s is very high, meaning it resists knocking.

Sources of Hydrogen
Hydrogen can be produced from a large number of reactions. The most familiar is that of
electrolytic process where direct current is passed through a conducting aqueous solution
producing hydrogen at one electrode and oxygen at the other.
The electrolysis process has a conversion efficiency of about 85%, but since the input energy
is electricity, the overall yield of the process is going from thermal to mechanical to electrical
to chemical energy is a maximum of 35%. However, hydrogen can also be produced more
easily and efficiently from fossil fuels. Most of the hydrogen produced today is from methane
in the Steam reforming process, which takes place at 900°C. This system uses methane gas and
hydrogen is produced as per the reaction
CH4 + H20 —> 3H2 + CO
The carbon monoxide generated is used to produce additional hydrogen as per the reaction-
CO + H20 —> H2 + C02
Other methods of producing hydrogen are the reaction of steam with naphtha, a heavy fuel oil,
or with coke, and coal. In an oil refinery, large amounts of hydrogen are generated by
converting the common feedstock naphtha (C8H16) into aromatic compounds, as per reaction:
C8H16 —> C8H10 (xylene) + 3H2
Hydrogen can also be produced in the Steam-iron process where steam reacts with hotbed of
ferrous oxide (FeO) at about 900°C. Magnetic iron oxide and hydrogen are produced in this
reaction-
H2O +3FeO -- Fe3O4 +H2

Electrolysis of Water
Electrolysis is the simplest method of hydrogen production. Currently, this method is not as
efficient or cost effective as thermo-chemical method using fossil fuels or biomass. But it
would allow for more distributed hydrogen generation and open the possibilities for use of
electricity generated from renewable and nuclear resources for hydrogen production.

An electrolysis cell essentially consists of two electrodes, commonly flat metal or carbon
plates, immersed in an aqueous conducting solution called electrolyte, as shown in Fig.
12.10. A direct current decomposes water into H2 and O2, which are released at cathode (–
ve electrode) and anode (+ve electrode) respectively. As water itself is poor conductor of
electricity, an electrolyte, commonly aqueous KOH is used.

REPP Dept.ME, VCET, Puttur

 12

Ideally, a decomposition voltage of 1.23 V per cell should be

sufficient at normal temperature and pressure; however, due to
various reasons a voltage of about 2 V per cell is applied in
practice. The energy required is 3.9–4.6 kWh per m3 of
hydrogen produced. About 60–70 per cent of this energy is
actually utilized in electrolysis. Therefore, the efficiency of
electrolysis process is about 60–70 per cent, which can be
improved up to 80 per cent by using catalyst such as porous
platinum or nickel. The chemical reaction:
• 2H₂O (l) electricity 2H₂ (g)+O₂ (g)
Electrolysis method is most suitable when primary energy is
available as electrical energy, e.g. solar photovoltaic energy. It is
also suitable where cheap electricity is available from other sources such as wind, geothermal,
etc.

Thermo Chemical Production

The thermochemical production of hydrogen energy, which is otherwise referred to as a
thermochemical water cycle, is a multi-step process in which water is dissociated to produce
both hydrogen and oxygen. This approach to hydrogen energy production requires high
temperatures within the range of 500 °C to 2000 °C to stimulate the several reactions that are
needed to acquire the final hydrogen product.

There are several different routes by which hydrogen energy can be produced through
thermochemical methods; however, the most common thermochemical processes include
natural gas reforming, which is otherwise known as steam methane reforming (SMR), biomass
gasification, biomass-derived liquid reforming, and solar thermochemical hydrogen (STCH)
production.

Steam methane reforming

The source of hydrogen energy in SMR is
a methane source, the most common of
which is natural gas. During this process,
methane reacts with steam at a pressure
between 3-25 bar pressure in the presence
of a catalyst. This catalytic reaction leads
to the production of hydrogen, carbon
monoxide (CO), and a small amount of
carbon dioxide (CO2).

Following this reaction, a water-gas shift

reaction takes place, during which the CO
reacts with the steam to produce CO2 and a greater amount of hydrogen. The final step of SMR
is a pressure-swing adsorption step, during which CO2 and any other impurities that are
produced during the previous reactions are removed from the gas stream to yield pure hydrogen
energy as the final product.
Primary Reaction – Reforming
• At around 700–1,000°C, methane reacts with steam over a nickel catalyst:
CH₄+H₂O→CO+3H₂

REPP Dept.ME, VCET, Puttur

 13

Water-Gas Shift Reaction

• The CO from the first reaction is further reacted with more steam:
CO+H₂O→CO₂+H₂
Overall Reaction:
CH₄+2H₂O→CO₂+4H₂

Biomass gasification
Biomass gasification utilizes biomass as its source of hydrogen energy, which can originate
from a wide range of sources, including agriculture crop residues, forest residues, organic
municipal solid wastes, and animal wastes. Typically, the biomass gasification process begins
with the reaction of the biomass source with a controlled amount of oxygen or steam, which
will lead to the production of CO, CO2, and hydrogen. The CO produced from this reaction
will subsequently react with water to form more CO2 and hydrogen through a similar water-
gas shift reaction that occurs during SMR.

Solar Thermochemical Hydrogen (STCH) Production

Solar thermochemical
water-splitting cycles
(TWSCs) use high-
temperature solar heat to
drive a series of reactions
producing hydrogen with
oxygen. The chemicals
used are recycled,
creating a closed-loop
process utilizing only
water as feedstock, plus
solar heat. The simplest
TWSC is a two-step
process. The metal oxide redox reactions include one endothermic reaction and one exothermic
reaction.
The metal oxide is transformed first into a reduced-valence metal oxide plus oxygen.
MOox→MOred+½O2
• Heat (from sunlight) removes oxygen atoms from the metal oxide.
The reduced-valence metal oxide then reacts with H2O producing H2, oxygen, and the initial
metal oxide.
MOred+H2O→MOox+H2

Advantages of hydrogen:
• The major source of hydrogen, water is available freely and in plenty.
• It can be used as a fuel directly by burning.
• It can be liquefied, and stored conveniently in cylinders.
• It can be transported easily through pipelines to long distances.
• Handling and usage is very simple.
• There is no impact on the environment since the product of combustion is just water
vapor.

REPP Dept.ME, VCET, Puttur