Portions given-

Unit 1: Plant - Photosynthesis and Respiration

1. The structure of the leaf as an organ of photosynthesis

2. Chloroplast structure and function
3. Process of photosynthesis
4. Factors affecting photosynthesis

Unit 2: DNA and Heredity

1. Structure of DNA
2. Replication of DNA
3. Mutations and DNA repair
4. Cell division
Mitosis
Meiosis
5. Mendelian Genetics
6. Non-Mendelian Genetics
7. Central Dogma
8. Extraction of DNA from a strawberry
9. DNA and its structures
10. Monohybrid cross
11. Advanced topics in Genetics

Unit 1-

https://byjus.com/biology/photosynthesis/
Unit 2-

What is Heredity and Genetics?

https://youtu.be/GIzNlISbCxI

https://byjus.com/biology/principles-of-genetics/

https://byjus.com/biology/dna-structure/

Structure of the DNA-

https://biologydictionary.net/dna-structure/

The replication of DNA-

https://www.sciencefacts.net/dna-replication.html

Mutations-

https://byjus.com/biology/mutation-genetic-change/

https://youtu.be/lzhp5NuXo-k

Cell Division-

https://byjus.com/biology/cell-division/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=RNwJbMovnVQ&pp=ygUTbWVpb3NpcyBhbmQgbWl0b3Npcw%3D%3D

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=micUPynqx9k&pp=ygUTbWVpb3NpcyBhbmQgbWl0b3Npcw%3D%3D

Mendelian genetics-

https://byjus.com/biology/mendelian-genetics/

Non-mendelian
https://byjus.com/biology/non-mendelian-inheritance/

How to extract DNA from a banana-

https://sciencenotes.org/how-to-extract-dna-from-a-banana/

Central Dogma( Transcription and Translation)

https://biologydictionary.net/central-dogma/

Monohybrid Cross

https://byjus.com/biology/monohybrid-cross-inheritance-one-gene/

Structure of DNA-

1. Double Helix Structure

● DNA is structured as a double helix, resembling a twisted ladder.

● This double helix consists of two strands that wrap around each other in a spiral
formation.

2. Nucleotides

● The basic building blocks of DNA are called nucleotides.

 ● Each nucleotide is composed of three parts:
○ A phosphate group
○ A deoxyribose sugar (a five-carbon sugar)
○ A nitrogenous base

3. Nitrogenous Bases

● There are four types of nitrogenous bases in DNA:

○ Adenine (A)
○ Thymine (T)
○ Cytosine (C)
○ Guanine (G)
● The nitrogenous bases pair in a specific way:
○ Adenine pairs with Thymine (A-T)
○ Cytosine pairs with Guanine (C-G)
● These base pairs are held together by hydrogen bonds:
○ A-T pairs have two hydrogen bonds.
○ C-G pairs have three hydrogen bonds.

4. Antiparallel Strands

● DNA strands run in opposite directions, known as being antiparallel.

● One strand runs in a 5' (five prime) to 3' (three prime) direction, while the other runs from
3' to 5'.
● The 5' and 3' ends refer to the numbering of carbon atoms in the deoxyribose sugar.

5. Backbone of DNA

● The DNA backbone is made up of alternating phosphate and sugar groups.

● The sugar and phosphate form a strong covalent bond known as a phosphodiester
bond.

6. Major and Minor Grooves

● The structure of the double helix creates major and minor grooves along the DNA strand.
● These grooves allow proteins and other molecules to interact with the DNA, playing a
crucial role in gene expression and regulation.

7. Complementary Base Pairing

● The complementary base pairing (A-T and C-G) allows DNA to replicate accurately
during cell division.
● Each strand serves as a template for creating a new complementary strand, ensuring
genetic information is passed on faithfully.
8. Stability and Function

● The structure of DNA provides stability, protecting the genetic information within.
● Its double-stranded, helical structure allows it to be tightly packed in the nucleus and
stable enough to avoid frequent mutations.

DNA Replication Overview

DNA replication is the process by which DNA makes a copy of itself during cell division. This is
essential for genetic information to be accurately passed on to new cells.

Key Stages in DNA Replication

1. Initiation
○ Replication begins at specific locations on the DNA molecule called origins of
replication.
○ An enzyme called helicase unwinds the double helix by breaking the hydrogen
bonds between the base pairs, creating a structure called the replication fork.
2. Elongation
 ○
Single-strand binding proteins (SSBs) bind to the separated DNA strands to keep
them apart.
○ An enzyme called primase adds a short RNA primer to each template strand,
providing a starting point for DNA synthesis.
○ DNA polymerase adds new nucleotides (A, T, C, G) to the growing DNA strand in
a complementary manner: adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T), and cytosine (C)
pairs with guanine (G).
○ DNA polymerase can only add nucleotides in the 5' to 3' direction, meaning one
strand (the leading strand) is synthesized continuously. The other strand (the
lagging strand) is synthesized in short fragments called Okazaki fragments.
3. Termination
○ Once all sections of DNA have been copied, DNA polymerase removes the RNA
primers and replaces them with DNA nucleotides.
○ DNA ligase seals the gaps between Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand,
forming a continuous strand.

Important Enzymes in DNA Replication

● Helicase: Unwinds the DNA double helix.

● Primase: Synthesizes RNA primers needed to start replication.
● DNA Polymerase: Adds nucleotides to form new DNA strands.
● Ligase: Joins DNA fragments on the lagging strand.

Mutations-

What is a Mutation?

A mutation is a change in the genetic material (DNA) of an organism. Mutations can occur in
any part of the DNA sequence, and these changes can happen in a variety of ways. Mutations
can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful, depending on how they affect the organism's function.

Types of Mutations

1. Gene Mutations:
○ Gene mutations occur within a single gene. These mutations affect the sequence
of nucleotides in the DNA.
○ Point Mutation: A change in a single base pair. There are three types:
■ Substitution: One base is replaced by another.
■ Insertion: An extra base is inserted into the sequence.
■ Deletion: A base is removed from the sequence.
 2. Chromosomal Mutations:
○ These mutations involve changes to the structure or number of chromosomes.
○ Types of Chromosomal Mutations:
■ Deletion: A part of the chromosome is lost.
■ Duplication: A segment of the chromosome is repeated.
■ Inversion: A segment of the chromosome is reversed.
■ Translocation: A part of one chromosome is transferred to another
chromosome.
3. Frameshift Mutations:
○ These occur when nucleotides are inserted or deleted, shifting the reading frame
of the codons in mRNA. This often results in a completely different protein.

Causes of Mutations

1. Spontaneous Mutations:
○ Mutations that occur naturally without any outside influence, often during DNA
replication.
2. Induced Mutations:
○ Mutations caused by environmental factors such as:
■ Radiation (e.g., UV light, X-rays)
■ Chemicals (e.g., tobacco smoke, certain pesticides)
■ Viruses (e.g., human papillomavirus can cause mutations leading to
cancer)
3. Errors in DNA Replication:
○ DNA replication is a highly accurate process, but occasionally errors happen. If
these errors are not repaired, they can lead to mutations.

Consequences of Mutations

1. Beneficial Mutations:
○ Some mutations provide an advantage to the organism, helping it survive better
in its environment. For example, a mutation that gives an organism resistance to
a disease could be beneficial.
2. Harmful Mutations:
○ Many mutations are harmful and lead to diseases or disorders. For example,
mutations in the hemoglobin gene can cause sickle cell anemia.
3. Neutral Mutations:
○ Some mutations do not affect the organism’s function at all, particularly when
they occur in non-coding regions of the DNA.

Repair Mechanisms for Mutations

Cells have systems to repair damaged DNA. These include:

 1. Proofreading by DNA polymerase during replication.
2. Mismatch repair: Detecting and correcting errors that escape the proofreading process.
3. Excision repair: Removing and replacing damaged sections of DNA caused by
environmental factors.

Examples of Mutations

1. Sickle Cell Anemia:

○ Caused by a mutation in the hemoglobin gene, leading to the production of
abnormal hemoglobin. This results in red blood cells becoming sickle-shaped,
which can block blood flow and cause pain.
2. Cystic Fibrosis:
○ Caused by mutations in the CFTR gene, which affects the production of a protein
that helps regulate the movement of salt in and out of cells. This leads to the
buildup of thick mucus in the lungs and digestive system.
3. Colorblindness:
○ A genetic mutation that affects the ability to perceive certain colors, commonly
affecting males.

Mutations and Evolution

Mutations are essential for evolution because they introduce genetic diversity into a population.
Natural selection can act on this diversity, favoring individuals with advantageous mutations.
Over generations, beneficial mutations accumulate, leading to new traits in the population.

Conclusion

Mutations are an important aspect of genetics and biology. While they can lead to genetic
disorders, they are also a source of genetic variation that drives evolution. Understanding how
mutations work, their causes, and their consequences helps us learn more about how
organisms adapt and evolve over time.
DNA repair-

DNA repair is a critical process that helps maintain the integrity of our genetic information. DNA
can become damaged by various factors like radiation, chemicals, or even errors in replication.
DNA repair mechanisms help correct these damages to prevent mutations, which can lead to
diseases, including cancer. Let's go over the main types of DNA damage and the DNA repair
processes in detail, suitable for a deep understanding at the IB 9th-grade level.

1. Types of DNA Damage

DNA can be damaged in different ways:

● Single-Strand Breaks (SSBs): Only one strand of the DNA double helix is broken. This
is typically easier to repair.
● Double-Strand Breaks (DSBs): Both strands of the DNA double helix are broken, which
is more serious and challenging to repair.
● Base Modifications: Individual bases (like adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine) may be
chemically altered due to UV light, radiation, or chemicals. This can lead to mutations if
not corrected.
● Cross-Linking: When two DNA strands are abnormally bonded together, interfering with
replication and transcription.

Each type of damage has a specific repair mechanism to maintain genetic stability.

2. DNA Repair Mechanisms

Several repair mechanisms work to correct different types of DNA damage. These are vital for
cell survival and proper function:

a. Base Excision Repair (BER)

 ● Purpose: Fixes small, non-helix-distorting base lesions that are caused by oxidation,
alkylation, or deamination.
● Process:
1. Damage Recognition: The affected base is detected by an enzyme called
glycosylase.
2. Base Removal: Glycosylase removes the damaged base, leaving an "abasic"
site (a place in the DNA without a base).
3. End Processing: Another enzyme, AP endonuclease, cuts the DNA backbone at
the abasic site.
4. Resynthesis: DNA polymerase fills in the missing base using the
complementary strand as a template.
5. Sealing the Break: DNA ligase seals the nick in the DNA backbone, completing
the repair.

b. Nucleotide Excision Repair (NER)

● Purpose: Corrects bulky, helix-distorting lesions such as those caused by UV light (e.g.,
thymine dimers).
● Process:
1. Damage Recognition: Damage recognition proteins identify the bulky lesion.
2. DNA Unwinding: Helicase enzymes unwind the DNA around the damage site.
3. Excision: A specific region surrounding the lesion (approximately 24–32 bases)
is cut out by endonucleases.
4. DNA Synthesis: DNA polymerase fills in the missing sequence using the
undamaged strand as a guide.
5. Ligation: DNA ligase seals the repaired strand.

c. Mismatch Repair (MMR)

● Purpose: Corrects errors that escape proofreading during DNA replication, like
mismatched base pairs.
● Process:
1. Detection of Mismatch: Mismatch repair proteins recognize the mismatched
base pairs.
2. Strand Discrimination: The system identifies which strand is the newly
synthesized strand (with the mismatch) based on its lack of methylation in
bacteria or the presence of strand-specific nicks in eukaryotes.
3. Excision and Resynthesis: The incorrect base or section is removed, and DNA
polymerase resynthesizes the correct sequence.
4. Sealing: DNA ligase seals the final gap.

d. Double-Strand Break Repair (DSBR)

Double-strand breaks (DSBs) are critical as they affect both DNA strands, making it more
challenging to repair. There are two primary mechanisms to repair DSBs:
 ● Non-Homologous End Joining (NHEJ):
○ Purpose: Joins broken DNA ends without needing a homologous template.
○ Process: Ends of the DSB are processed, and then directly joined together. This
can sometimes lead to errors, as small sequences may be lost during the
process.
● Homologous Recombination (HR):
○ Purpose: Uses a homologous template (sister chromatid) to ensure accurate
repair, typically occurring during the S and G2 phases when sister chromatids are
available.
○ Process: The broken DNA ends align with the homologous sequence, and the
sequence is copied accurately to repair the break without losing information. HR
is more precise than NHEJ.

3. Importance of DNA Repair in Cellular Health

Without efficient DNA repair, cells would accumulate mutations that could disrupt essential
genes. This can lead to diseases like cancer, where cells grow uncontrollably due to damaged
DNA. Each repair mechanism is highly specific, ensuring that the right kind of repair is done for
each type of damage.

4. Key Terms to Remember

● DNA Ligase: An enzyme that "seals" breaks in the DNA backbone.

● DNA Polymerase: An enzyme that synthesizes new DNA strands.
● Glycosylase: Enzyme involved in recognizing and removing damaged bases.
● Helicase: Enzyme that unwinds DNA, especially during NER and repair processes.
● Endonuclease: Enzyme that makes cuts within a DNA strand.
● Methylation: A process that can mark the parent strand in DNA, aiding in strand
discrimination in some organisms.

5. Real-Life Applications and Importance

Understanding DNA repair is not only crucial for basic biology but also for medical science.
Many cancer treatments, like chemotherapy and radiation, work by causing DNA damage in
cancer cells, relying on their reduced ability to repair DNA to destroy them selectively.
Understanding repair pathways can help develop better treatments, protect healthy cells, and
prevent genetic disorders.

Summary

DNA repair is an essential cellular function involving multiple pathways, each suited to repair
specific types of DNA damage. Maintaining the accuracy of genetic information through these
repair mechanisms is fundamental to cell survival, development, and protection from diseases
like cancer.
Mendelian Genetics-

1. Who Was Mendel?

● Gregor Mendel was a scientist and monk who is known as the "Father of Genetics." In
the 1860s, he conducted experiments on pea plants and discovered the basic principles
of heredity.

2. Key Terms in Mendelian Genetics

● Gene: A section of DNA that codes for a specific trait.

● Allele: Different forms of a gene. For example, a gene for eye color might have a blue
allele and a brown allele.
● Dominant allele: The allele that expresses its trait even if only one copy is present
(represented by a capital letter, e.g., B).
● Recessive allele: The allele that only expresses its trait when two copies are present
(represented by a lowercase letter, e.g., b).
● Genotype: The genetic makeup of an individual (e.g., BB, Bb, or bb).
● Phenotype: The observable traits of an individual (e.g., blue eyes or brown eyes).
● Homozygous: Having two identical alleles for a trait (e.g., BB or bb).
● Heterozygous: Having two different alleles for a trait (e.g., Bb).

3. Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance

Mendel's experiments led to the formulation of two main laws:

● Law of Segregation:
○ Each individual has two alleles for each gene, one from each parent.
○ During reproduction (meiosis), these two alleles separate, so each gamete
(sperm or egg cell) receives only one allele.
○ For example, if a plant has one allele for tallness (T) and one for shortness (t), it
can pass on either T or t to its offspring.
● Law of Independent Assortment:
○ Alleles for different genes are distributed to gametes independently of one
another.
○ This means the inheritance of one trait (like height) does not influence the
inheritance of another trait (like flower color).
○ However, this law applies fully only if the genes are on different chromosomes or
far apart on the same chromosome.

4. Mendelian Ratios and Punnett Squares

Mendel discovered that the traits in offspring followed specific ratios:

● Monohybrid Cross (crosses involving one trait):

○ When a homozygous dominant (BB) individual crosses with a homozygous
recessive (bb), all offspring in the first generation (F1) are heterozygous (Bb).
○ If two F1 heterozygous individuals (Bb x Bb) cross, the genotypic ratio in the F2
generation is 1:2:1 (BB, Bb, bb).
○ The phenotypic ratio is 3:1 for dominant to recessive traits (e.g., three plants will
be tall if tallness is dominant, and one will be short if shortness is recessive).
● Dihybrid Cross (crosses involving two traits):
○ If we cross two organisms that are heterozygous for two traits (e.g., RrYy x
RrYy), the offspring will show a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio.
○ This ratio represents the combinations of dominant and recessive traits for each
gene.

5. Example Problem

● Suppose we have two pea plants. One has a genotype Tt (tall) and the other has tt
(short).
● Using a Punnett square, we can determine the possible genotypes and phenotypes of
their offspring.
● Tt x tt cross would result in 50% tall plants (Tt) and 50% short plants (tt).

6. Applications of Mendelian Genetics

● Predicting Traits in Offspring: Mendelian genetics is used to predict traits in offspring,

including in plants, animals, and humans.
● Genetic Counseling: Understanding how traits are passed down can help families
predict the likelihood of inheriting certain genetic conditions.

7. Limitations of Mendelian Genetics

● Not all traits follow Mendelian inheritance. Some traits are polygenic (controlled by
multiple genes), or influenced by the environment, leading to non-Mendelian patterns.
● Examples of non-Mendelian inheritance include incomplete dominance, co-dominance,
and multiple alleles.

Non-mendelian-

Non-Mendelian genetics refers to patterns of inheritance that do not follow the classic rules first
described by Gregor Mendel. These involve traits that don't show simple dominant or recessive
inheritance. Here’s a deep dive into the main types of non-Mendelian inheritance in simple
terms:
1. Incomplete Dominance

● In incomplete dominance, the offspring shows a blend of both parent traits.

● Neither allele is fully dominant over the other, so they combine to create an
intermediate phenotype.
● Example: If a red flower (RR) is crossed with a white flower (WW), the offspring might
be pink (RW).

2. Codominance

● In codominance, both alleles are expressed fully and independently in the

phenotype.
● Unlike incomplete dominance, here, both traits are visible at the same time, without
blending.
● Example: In human blood types, if a person inherits an A allele from one parent and a B
allele from the other, they have an AB blood type. Both A and B proteins are present on
their red blood cells, rather than blending into one.

3. Multiple Alleles

● Multiple alleles mean that more than two possible alleles exist for a gene in the
population, though each individual only inherits two (one from each parent).
● Example: The human blood type gene (ABO) has three alleles: A, B, and O. Possible
blood types are A, B, AB, and O, depending on the combination of alleles a person
inherits.

4. Polygenic Inheritance

● Polygenic inheritance happens when a single trait is controlled by multiple genes,

each contributing a small amount to the overall phenotype.
● Traits like skin color, eye color, and height are polygenic, which is why they show a
continuous range of variation (e.g., many different shades of skin color).
● This is also why polygenic traits don’t follow simple Mendelian ratios but rather show a
bell curve in a population.

5. Pleiotropy

● Pleiotropy occurs when one gene affects multiple traits in the body.
● This means a mutation in a single gene can have a range of effects on different parts of
the body.
● Example: The gene responsible for Marfan syndrome, which affects connective tissue,
can lead to long limbs, vision problems, and heart defects all due to one gene mutation.

6. Epistasis
 ● Epistasis occurs when one gene masks or modifies the effect of another gene at a
different location.
● The expression of one gene depends on the presence or absence of another gene.
● Example: In mice, a gene determines whether pigment is produced (C or c), and
another gene determines whether the pigment will be black or brown (B or b). If the
pigment gene is in its recessive form (cc), no pigment will be produced regardless of the
color gene.

7. Genomic Imprinting

● Genomic imprinting is when the expression of a gene depends on which parent it

was inherited from.
● Certain genes are "imprinted," meaning they are silenced (not expressed) depending on
whether they came from the mother or the father.
● Example: In humans, the IGF2 gene involved in growth is only active if inherited from
the father, not the mother.

8. Mitochondrial Inheritance

● Mitochondrial inheritance refers to genes that are found in the mitochondria rather than
in the nucleus.
● These genes are inherited only from the mother because only the egg (not the sperm)
contributes mitochondria to the offspring.
● Example: Some rare genetic diseases, like Leber’s Hereditary Optic Neuropathy
(LHON), are passed down through mitochondrial DNA.

DNA and its structures

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the molecule that holds the instructions for all living things. It
is often compared to a blueprint or code because it contains the information needed for cells to
grow, function, and reproduce. Let’s break down DNA's structure in a way that’s easy to
understand.

1. Basic Shape: The Double Helix

● DNA looks like a twisted ladder. This shape is called a double helix.
● Each “side” of the ladder is made of two strands that twist around each other. These
strands are held together by bonds between "rungs."

2. Components of DNA: Nucleotides

● DNA is made up of small building blocks called nucleotides.

● Each nucleotide has three parts:
 ○ A sugar molecule called deoxyribose.
○ A phosphate group that links the sugars together, forming the backbone of the
ladder.
○ A nitrogenous base—the part of the nucleotide that interacts with the base on the
opposite strand to form the rungs of the ladder.

3. The Four Bases and Base Pairing

● There are four nitrogenous bases in DNA:

○ Adenine (A)
○ Thymine (T)
○ Cytosine (C)
○ Guanine (G)
● The bases pair up in a specific way:
○ A always pairs with T.
○ C always pairs with G.
● These pairs are held together by hydrogen bonds, like the rungs of a ladder.

4. How DNA Stores Information

● The sequence of the bases (A, T, C, G) forms a unique code, much like letters in a
sentence.
● This sequence is a set of instructions for making proteins, which are essential molecules
that carry out most of the work in cells.

5. DNA is Packaged into Chromosomes

● In a cell, DNA is wrapped around proteins called histones to form a structure called
chromatin.
● This chromatin is further organized and packed into chromosomes, which makes it
easier for cells to handle DNA, especially during cell division.

Why is DNA Structure Important?

● The structure of DNA allows it to be copied accurately. When cells divide, DNA replicates
so each new cell has an identical copy.
● Errors in copying can lead to mutations, which might affect an organism's traits.

Criterion B-

For Criterion B, which focuses on inquiry and design, here's a simple method to extract DNA
from a strawberry. This experiment works well in a 9th-grade setting because strawberries have
large genomes and are polyploid (they have multiple sets of chromosomes), which makes it
easier to extract a visible amount of DNA.
Objective

The objective of this experiment is to extract DNA from a strawberry using household materials.
This demonstrates the concept of DNA isolation and helps visualize the genetic material.

Materials

● 1 strawberry
● Resealable plastic bag
● Dish soap or liquid detergent
● Salt
● Water
● Rubbing alcohol (isopropyl alcohol), chilled in the freezer
● Coffee filter or cheesecloth
● Small cup or beaker
● Stirring stick or bamboo skewer

Procedure

1. Preparation: Chill the rubbing alcohol in the freezer; cold alcohol will help DNA
precipitate.
2. Crush the Strawberry:
○ Place the strawberry in the plastic bag and seal it.
○ Gently mash the strawberry for 1-2 minutes until it’s completely crushed. This
breaks open the strawberry cells and releases the contents.
3. Create the Extraction Solution:
○ In a small cup, mix 2 teaspoons of dish soap, a pinch of salt, and 100 ml of water.
Stir gently to combine.
○ Pour this extraction solution into the bag with the mashed strawberry.
○ Seal the bag again and mash for another minute. The dish soap breaks down the
cell and nuclear membranes, while the salt helps the DNA clump together.
4. Filter the Mixture:
○ Place a coffee filter or cheesecloth over a small beaker.
○ Carefully pour the strawberry mixture into the filter to separate the solid parts
from the liquid. Wait until you have about 5-10 ml of strawberry liquid in the
beaker.
5. Add Cold Alcohol:
○ Slowly pour cold rubbing alcohol down the side of the beaker so it forms a layer
on top of the strawberry liquid. Avoid mixing the alcohol with the liquid.
○ Let it sit for a few minutes. DNA will precipitate and rise into the alcohol layer as
white, stringy strands.
6. Observe the DNA:
 ○ Use a stirring stick or bamboo skewer to gently lift the DNA out of the solution.
○ You should see a clump of white, stringy material, which is the DNA.

Explanation

● Cell Lysis: The dish soap breaks down cell membranes by dissolving lipids and proteins,
releasing the DNA from the cell.
● Salt’s Role: Salt helps to separate the DNA strands by neutralizing their charge, allowing
them to clump together.
● Alcohol’s Role: DNA is not soluble in alcohol, especially when it’s cold. This causes the
DNA to precipitate out of the solution, making it visible.

Safety Notes

● Avoid contact with rubbing alcohol, as it can be irritating to the skin and eyes.
● Perform this experiment with adult supervision if possible.

IB Criterion B Connection

● Problem/Research Question: How can DNA be extracted from a strawberry?

● Hypothesis: The extraction solution (detergent, salt, and water) will break down cell
membranes, allowing DNA to be isolated.
● Variables:
○ Independent Variable: Type of solution used for extraction
○ Dependent Variable: Amount of visible DNA extracted
○ Control Variables: Amount of strawberry, amount of detergent, temperature of
alcohol
● Procedure Design: Clearly describe steps, materials, and safety precautions.
Central Dogma-

The central dogma of molecular biology describes the flow of genetic information within a
biological system. In your IB syllabus, here’s an outline of the main concepts you’ll need to
know:

1. Overview of the Central Dogma

The central dogma explains how DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated
into proteins. Proteins are essential molecules that carry out most of the functions in
cells.
2. DNA Transcription
○ Process: DNA is used as a template to make a single-stranded RNA molecule,
called messenger RNA (mRNA).
○ Enzyme Involved: RNA polymerase attaches to a specific DNA region and
separates the strands. It then uses one strand of DNA to synthesize a
complementary RNA strand.
○ Result: The mRNA strand carries genetic instructions from DNA to the ribosomes,
where protein synthesis occurs.
3. RNA Translation
○ Process: The mRNA travels to the ribosome, where it serves as a template to
make proteins.
○ Ribosomes: Organelles in the cell that facilitate the assembly of amino acids into
proteins based on the sequence in mRNA.
○ tRNA: Transfer RNA molecules bring specific amino acids to the ribosome based
on the mRNA codons (three-nucleotide sequences).
○ Result: A polypeptide chain is formed, which folds into a functional protein.
4. Role of Proteins
Proteins perform a wide range of functions in the cell, from catalyzing biochemical
reactions as enzymes to providing structure and support.
5. Importance of the Central Dogma
This process is fundamental because it shows how the genetic information in DNA is
expressed in the form of proteins, which ultimately determine an organism's traits.