Section 4.

1 Vector Concepts
Vectors are a part of everyones common experience. Consider a typical winter weather report that you might hear on the nightly news: The temperature is presently 11 C, with a wind from the northwest at 22 km/h. This weather report contains two different types of quantities. One quantity (the temperature) is expressed as a single numerical value. The other quantity (the wind velocity) has a numerical value (its magnitude) and also a direction associated with it. These quantities are typical of the kinds encountered in science. They are classified as follows: Quantities having magnitude only are called scalars. Quantities having both magnitude and direction are called vectors.

There seems to be some overlap here. For example, the temperature could be thought of as having magnitude (11) and direction (negative); in that sense, it could be considered as a one-dimensional vector. There is no problem with this interpretation; sometimes it is a useful way to look at such quantities. However, in most situations we find it easier to use positive and negative numbers as scalars, and restrict the term vectors to quantities that require (at least) two properties to define them. Some examples of vector quantities are Force The force of gravity has a well defined magnitude and acts in a specific direction (down). The force of gravity is measured when you step on a scale. Force is a vector quantity. Displacement When you walk from point A to point B, you travel a certain distance in a certain direction. Displacement is a vector quantity. Some magnets are strong; others are weak. All cause a compass needle to swing around and point in a particular direction. A magnetic field is a vector quantity.

Magnetic Field

In a diagram, a vector is represented by an arrow: . The length of the arrow is a positive real number and represents the magnitude of the vector. The direction in which the arrow points is the direction of the vector. For now we will restrict our discussion to vectors in two dimensions or to situations that can be expressed in two dimensions. Our definitions and conclusions are easily extended to three dimensions (or more).

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EXAMPLE 1

A student travels to school by bus, first riding 2 km west, then changing buses and riding a further 3 km north. Represent these displacements on school a vector diagram. N Solution Suppose you represent a 1-km distance by a 1-cm line segment. Then, a 2-cm arrow pointing left represents the first leg of the bus trip. A 3-cm arrow pointing up represents the second leg. The total trip is represented by a diagram combining these vectors. The notation used to describe vector quantities is as follows: The algebraic symbol used in this text for a vector is a letter with an arrow on top. Some texts use boldface letters for vectors. Scalar quantities are written as usual. The magnitude of a vector is expressed by placing the vector symbol in absolute value brackets. The magnitude of a vector is a positive scalar. Often it is necessary to explicitly state the initial point and the end point of a vector. Then, two capital letters are used. Such vectors are referred to as point-to-point vectors. u, v are vectors
u v W S bus stop home E

u, v are also vectors x, y, a, b are scalars u, v are the magnitudes of the vectors u, v AB is the vector that starts at point A and ends at point B. Its magnitude is AB.
A B

Certain other terms are used in connection with vectors. Two vectors are equal if and only if their magnitudes and their directions are the same. Two vectors are opposite if they have the same magnitude but point in B C opposite directions. When two vectors are opposite, such as AB and CD, A one is the negative of the other: AB CD. D Two vectors are parallel if their directions are either the same or opposite.

EXAMPLE 2

ABCDEF is a regular hexagon. Give examples of vectors which are a. equal b. parallel but having different magnitudes
F

B C

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c. equal in magnitude but opposite in direction d. equal in magnitude but not parallel e. different in both magnitude and direction Solution a. AB c. FE d. ED e. FB, DC There are other possible answers. There is no special symbol for the direction of a vector. To specify the direction of a vector, we state the angle it makes with another vector or with some given direction such as a horizontal or vertical axis or a compass direction. The angle between two vectors is the angle ( 180) formed when the vectors are placed tail to tail; that is, starting at the same point.
v u

ED EB CB DC CB, but FE DC, but ED

b. FA EB, but FA

One way to determine the angle between two vectors is to examine geometrical relationships and use trigonometry.

EXAMPLE 3

OABC is a square with sides measuring 6 units. E is the midpoint of BC. A Find the angle between the following vectors. a. OB and OC b. OE and OC c. OB and OE
6

Solution a. The diagonal of the square bisects AOC. The angle between OB and OC is 45. b. Using trigonometry, tan EOC OE and OC is 26.6.
3 , EOC 6

26.6, so the angle between 26.6 18.4.

c. The angle between OB and OE is the difference 45

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When two vectors are parallel, one of the vectors can be expressed in terms of the other using scalar-multiplication. Suppose, for example, M is the midpoint of the line segment AB. Since M is the midpoint, then AB 2AM, and since the directions of AB and AM are the same, we write the vector equations AB 2AM or AM
1 2 AB or BM 1 2 AB.

Thus, multiplication of a vector by a scalar k results in a new vector parallel to the original one but with a different magnitude. It is true in general that two vectors u and v are parallel if and only if u kv. A particularly useful type of vector is a vector with magnitude 1. Such vectors are called unit vectors. A unit vector is denoted by a carat () placed over the symbol. When a vector and a unit vector are denoted by the same letter, for example v and v , you should understand v to be a unit vector having the same direction as v. Any vector can be expressed as a scalar multiple of a unit vector. Unit Vectors 1. A unit vector in the direction of any vector v can be found by dividing v by its magnitude v: 1 v v 2. Any vector v can be expressed as the product of its magnitude v and a unit vector v in the direction of v v vv Another useful type of vector has magnitude 0. Such vectors are valuable even though their direction is undefined. The zero vector is denoted by 0.
v

EXAMPLE 4

Examine the vectors in the diagram. a. Express b and c each as a scalar multiple of a. b. Express a, b, and c each in terms of the unit vector a.
a b c

Solution a. On the grid, each vector lies on the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle with sides in the ratio 1:2, so the three vectors are parallel. The magnitudes of a, b, and c can be found using the Pythagorean Theorem. a and c Therefore b 12 22 32 62 5, b 3 5 3a.
1 a. Then a 5

52

102

5 5,

5a and c

126 C H A P T E R 4

b. The unit vector in the direction of a is a b 5 5a, and c 3 5a.

5a,

Exercise 4.1
Part A
Communication Communication

1. In your own words, explain the difference between a scalar and a vector. 2. Which of these physical quantities is a vector and which is a scalar? a. the acceleration of a drag racer c. the velocity of a wave at a beach e. the speed of light g. the friction on an ice surface b. the mass of the moon d. the frequency of a musical note f. the age of a child h. the volume of a box

i. the energy produced by an electric j. the force of gravity generator k. the speedometer reading in an automobile m. the time on a kitchen clock o. the density of a lead weigh q. the area of a parallelogram l. the momentum of a curling stone n. the magnetic field of the earth p. the pressure of the atmosphere r. the temperature of a swimming pool

3. For each part of Example 2, state a second answer. Part B 4. One car travelling 75 km/h passes another going 50 km/h. Draw vectors that represent the velocities of the two cars if they are going a. in the same direction b. in opposite directions

5. What is the angle between the following directions? a. N and NE

Knowledge/ Understanding

b. E and SW

c. S and W

6. Draw a vector to represent a. the velocity of a fishing boat travelling at 8 knots on a heading of S75W (A knot is a speed of one nautical mile per hour.) b. the position of a city intersection 7 blocks east and 3 blocks south of your present position c. the displacement of a crate that moves 6 m up a conveyor belt inclined at an angle of 18 d. the force exerted by a chain hoist carrying a load of 200 kg

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Application

7. Radar in the control tower of an airport shows aircraft at directions of N50E, N70W, and S20W, and distances of 5, 8, and 12 km, respectively. a. In a diagram, draw vectors showing the positon of the three aircraft in relation to the tower. b. The aircraft are travelling at velocities of 450 kph N, 550 kph N70W, and 175 kph N20E, respectively. At the positon of each aircraft in part a, draw small vectors to represent their velocities.

Knowledge/ Understanding

8. The points A, B, C, D, E, F, and G are equally spaced along a line. Name a vector which is equal to a. 3BD b. 1 EA 4 c. 5 DF 2 d.
2 GC 3
A

e.

2AD
D

Application

9. ABCD is a rhombus. For each of the following, find two vectors u and v in this diagram (expressed as point-to-point vectors) such that a. u c. u v 2v b. u d. u v
1 v 2
B

P C

10. During takeoff, an aircraft rises 100 m for every 520 m of horizontal motion. Determine the direction of its velocity. 11. Determine the magnitude and the direction of each of the vectors in the given diagram. Express each direction as an angle measured counter-clockwise from a unit vector in the positive x direction.
y
a c d

12. A search and rescue aircraft, travelling at a speed of 240 km/h, starts out at a heading of N 20 W. After travelling for one hour and fifteen minutes, it turns to a heading of N 80 E and continues for another 2 hours before returning to base. a. Determine the displacement vector for each leg of the trip. b. Find the total distance the aircraft travelled and how long it took. Part C 13. For what values of k is (k 2)v 4v, (v 0)? kv.

14. Prove that two vectors u and v are parallel if and only if u

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Section 4.2 Vector Laws

In many applications of vectors to physical problems, we must find the combined effect or sum of two or more vectors. What, for example, is the combined effect of two or more forces acting on an object? How does wind velocity affect the velocity of an aircraft? To determine what the sum of two vectors is, let us look first for a geometrical answer. Suppose the rectangle ABCD is a park at the corner of an intersection. To get from A to C, some people will walk along the sidewalk from A to B and then from B to C. They follow a route described by the sum of two displacement vectors: AB BC. Others may follow a shortcut through the park directly from A to C. This route is described by the displacement vector AC. Whichever route is followed, the displacement is the same; both get from A to C. Therefore AB BC AC.
A Vector Diagram B

This model for vector addition is valid for all vectors, because, in general, vectors can be represented geometrically by a directed line segment. Triangle Law of Vector Addition To find the sum of two vectors u and v using the triangle law of vector addition, draw the two vectors head to tail. The sum u v, or resultant, is the vector from the tail of the first to the head of the second. The order in which we add the vectors is unimportant. If the vectors are added in the opposite order, the result is the same. This demonstrates that vectors satisfy the commutative law of addition: u v v u.
u v v+u u

u+v v

By combining the two triangles of the triangle law in one diagram, a parallelogram is formed.

v u+v u

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Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition To find the sum of two vectors using the parallelogram law of vector addition, draw the two vectors tail to tail. Complete the parallelogram with these vectors as sides. The sum u v is the diagonal of the parallelogram from the point where the tails are joined to the point where the heads meet. These two laws of addition are equivalent. The method we use depends on which is the most convenient for the problem at hand. When you set out to solve a problem involving vectors, start by drawing vector diagrams such as those on page 129.

EXAMPLE 1

Given the three vectors a, b, and c, sketch the sums a and (a b) c, b c, a (b c). Solution Adding a to b first, we obtain
c b a+b a a+b (a + b) + c

b
c

Adding b to c first, we obtain

b b+c c a b b+c a + (b + c) c

This example illustrates that vectors satisfy the associative law of addition: a (b c) (a b) c. It means that we can omit the brackets and write simply a b c.

EXAMPLE 2

Find the magnitude and direction of the sum of two vectors u and v, if their magnitudes are 5 and 8 units, respectively, and the angle between them is 30. Solution Make a vector diagram showing the two vectors with an angle of 30 between them. Complete the parallelogram and draw the resultant.

u 30 v

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The resultant is the third side of a triangle with sides 5 u+v and 8. Observe that the angle between the vectors is 5 30 150 not an angle in this triangle. The angle between the 8 vectors is equal to an exterior angle of the triangle. (Why?) Use the angle of 150 and the cosine law to find the magnitude of the sum. u Then u v2 v 52 82 158.28 12.6 2(5)(8) cos 150

The direction of u v is expressed as an angle measured relative to one of the given vectors, say v. This is in the diagram. It can be found using the sine law.
sin 5 sin 150 12.6 5 sin 150 12.6

sin

11.4 Therefore, the magnitude of u approximately 11.4 with v. v is 12.6 units, and it makes an angle of

To subtract two vectors a and b, we express the difference in terms of a sum. To find the vector a b, use the opposite of b and add it to a. Hence a b is equivalent to a ( b). The difference of two equal vectors a a is the zero vector, denoted by 0. The zero vector has zero magnitude. Its direction is indeterminate.
D C

EXAMPLE 3

In parallelogram ABCD, find the difference AB a. geometrically

AD

b. algebraically
A B

Solution a. Draw AD opposite to AD. Using the parallelogram law, draw the sum AB which is AC in the diagram. But AC DB, so AB AD DB

AD,
A B

b. AB

AD

AB AB DA DB

( AD) DA AB

(DA is the opposite of AD) (Rearrange the order of the terms)

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In the parallelogram formed by two vectors u and v

D C u+v v uv A u B

the sum u v is the vector created by the diagonal from the tail of the two vectors u v AC the difference u second diagonal u v DB v is the vector created by the

Properties of Vector Addition a b b a Commutative Law (a b) c a (b c) Associative Law Properties of Scalar Multiplication (mn)a m(na) Associative Law m(a b) ma mb Distributive Laws (m n)a ma na Properties of the Zero Vector: 0 a 0 a Each vector a has a negative ( a) such that a ( a) 0 These laws state that you may add vectors in any order you like and that you may expand and factor expressions in the usual way. There are other basic vector relations that are universally true. We can demonstrate the validity of these relations by using vector diagrams. The following example illustrates this.

EXAMPLE 4

Show that u

v. When does equality hold?

Solution Make a diagram of two vectors u and v, and their sum u v. The three vectors form a triangle. The lengths of the sides of the triangle are the magnitudes of the vectors. From the diagram, the side u v must be less than the sum of the other two sides u v. There is no triangle if it is greater. Therefore u
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u+v u

v.

When u and v have the same direction, the triangle collapses to a single line, and u v u v. Triangle Inequality For vectors u and v,u

u+v u v

v.

Exercise 4.2
Part A
Communication

1. For each of the following, state the name of a vector equal to u to u v. a.

D v v A B A u B A u C

v and equal

b.
D C

c.
D u v C

Knowledge/ Understanding

2. Seven points A, B, C, D, E, F, and G, are arranged in order from left to right on a single straight line. Express the vector BE as a. the sum of two vectors, three vectors, and four vectors b. the difference of two vectors in two different ways 3. What single vector is equivalent to each of these sums? a. PT c. EA Part B TS CB SQ DB AD b. AC d. PT GE QT CE SR SQ

Knowledge/ Understanding Application

4. Find the sum of the vectors u and v if a. u 12, v 21 and

is the angle between them. 3, v 10, and 115

70 b. u

5. A tour boat travels 25 km due east and then 15 km S50E. Represent these displacements in a vector diagram, then calculate the resultant displacement. 6. If a and b are unit vectors that make an angle of 60 with each other, calculate a. 3a 5b b. 8a 3b

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7. What conditions must be satisfied by the vectors u and v for the following to be true? a. u v u v b. u v u v c. u v u v

8. Under what conditions will three vectors having magnitudes of 7, 24, and 25, respectively, have the zero vector as a resultant? 9. Vectors a and b have magnitudes 2 and 3, respectively. If the angle between them is 50, find the vector 5a 2b, and state its magnitude and direction. 10. Simplify the following expressions using the properties of vector operations. a. 4x c. 8(3x
Application

5y 5y) 2i b 3x c

6y 4(6x k, b 9y) i j

b. 2x d. 3x k, and c 2b 3c 2i

4(x 6y

y) 4(2y x) 6x

11. Let a a. a 12. If a

3j

3k. Find c. 3b 4c

b. a 5x

2y and b

4y, find x and y in terms of a and b.

13. Check each identity algebraically, and illustrate with the use of a diagram. a. x
y 2 x x 2 y

b. x v) ku kv.

x 2

x 2

14. Illustrate for k

0 that k(u

15. Show geometrically that, for any scalar k and any vectors u and v, k(u v) ku kv. 16. By considering the angles between the vectors, show that a perpendicular when a b. Part C 17. ABCDEF is a regular hexagon with sides of unit length. Find the magnitude and the direction of AB AC AD AE AF. 18. If x 11, y 23, and x y 30, find x y.
u+v uv A B C D F E

b and a

b are

19. The sum and the difference of two vectors u and v are given. Show how to find the vectors themselves.

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Thinking/Inquiry/ Problem Solving

20. Represent by i , j , and k, the three vectors AB, AC, and AD that lie along adjacent edges of the cube in the given diagram. Express each of the following vectors in terms of i , j , and k. a. FG, a diagonal of the front face of the cube c. BE, a body diagonal of the cube d. the other body diagonals of the cube

D F A B G H

b. the other diagonals of the front, top and right faces of the cube

e. What is the magnitude of a face diagonal? A body diagonal? 21. Prove that for any vectors u and v, u v2 u v2 2(u2 v2).

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Section 4.3 Force as a Vector

A force on any object causes that object to undergo an acceleration. You can feel a force pushing you back into your seat whenever the car you are riding in accelerates from a stop light. You no longer feel any force once the car has reached a steady speed, but that does not mean that the force that set the car in motion has ceased to exist. Instead that force is now balanced by other forces such as air resistance and road friction. A steady speed is an example of a state of equilibrium in which the net force is zero. It was Newton who first clarified these concepts and formulated the law that bears his name. Newtons First Law of Motion An object will remain in a state of equilibrium (which is a state of rest or a state of uniform motion) unless it is compelled to change that state by the action of an outside force. The outside force mentioned in Newtons First Law refers to an unbalanced force. When you release a helium-filled balloon, it will rise into the air. It is attracted by the force of gravity like everything else but upward forces are greater, so it accelerates into the sky. Eventually it reaches an altitude where the atmosphere is less dense, and the buoyant forces and the force of gravity balance. In this state of equilibrium, it can float for days, as weather balloons often do.

EXAMPLE 1

Describe the forces acting on an aircraft flying at constant velocity. Solution An aircraft flying at a constant velocity is in a state of equilibrium. The engines provide thrust, the force propelling the aircraft forward. The thrust is counterbalanced by a drag force coming from air resistance. The air rushing past the wings produces lift, a force which counterbalances the force of gravity and keeps the plane aloft.

lift drag aircraft weight thrust

The magnitude of a force is measured in newtons, which is abbreviated as N. At the earths surface, gravity causes objects to accelerate at a rate of approximately 9.8 m/s2 as they fall. The magnitude of the gravitational force is the product of an

136 C H A P T E R 4

objects mass and this acceleration. The gravitational force on a 1-kg object at the earths surface is approximately 9.8 N. In other words, a 1-kg object weighs approximately 9.8 N. It is generally the case that several forces act on an object at once. It is important to know the net effect of all these forces, because an objects state of motion is determined by this net force. Since forces are vectors, the single force that has the same effect as all the forces acting together can be found by vector addition. This single force is the resultant of all the forces. Sometimes a force acts on an object at an angle, so that only part of the force is affecting the motion of the object.

EXAMPLE 2

Jake is towing his friend on a toboggan, using a rope which makes an angle of 25 with the ground. If Jake is pulling with a force of 70 N, what horizontal force is he exerting on the toboggan? Solution First draw a diagram showing the force and its direction. Now consider that this force is the resultant of a horizontal force h and a vertical force v. We show this by forming a triangle, with the original 70 N force as the resultant; h and v are perpendicular. Now h 70 cos 25 63.4

70

25 h

So the horizontal force is about 63.4 N. We refer to the quantietiesh and v as the horizontal and vertical components of the original force.

EXAMPLE 3

Jake and Maria are towing their friends on a toboggan. Each is exerting a horizontal force of 60 N. Since they are walking side by side, the ropes pull one to each side; they each make an angle of 20 with the line of motion. Find the force pulling the toboggan forward. Solution Make a diagram showing the forces. By completing the parallelogram, we show the resultant r, the diagonal of the parallelogram.

60 N 20 20 60 N

140 r

60

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137

r2 602 602 r 112.8

2(60)(60) cos 140

The towing force is about 113 N. 1. We could have solved this question by finding the component of each force along the direction of travel and adding the results. 2. If the forces had not been equal, the angles made with the direction of travel would not have been equal. In Example 3, the toboggan is (probably) travelling at a constant speed, indicating that there is no unbalanced force on it. This is because there is a frictional force that is equal and opposite to the towing force. The force that is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the resultant is called the equilibrant. It exactly counterbalances the resultant. In Example 2, the force of friction is the equilibrant, which keeps the towing force from accelerating the toboggan.

EXAMPLE 4

In Example 2, what if Maria starts pulling at an angle of 30 instead of 20? As the diagram shows, the direction of the resultant will be a little to the right of the axis of the toboggan. This means that the toboggan will not travel forward in a straight line but will veer continually to the right. If these conditions remain unchanged, the toboggan will travel in a circle.

60 N 30 60 N

Maria

EXAMPLE 5

In Example 2, if Maria pulls with a force of 60 N at an angle of 30, what should the magnitude of the force exerted by Jake at an angle of 20 be if the toboggan is to move straight forward without turning? According to the sine law,
sin 30 = sin 20 60 F

Jake ? 20 30 60 N Maria F 20 30 R 130 60

88 N

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Jake must pull with a force of 88 N. Since Jake is pulling harder than before, the resultant will be greater than before:
sin 130 R sin 20 60

134 N

As in Example 2 and the subsequent discussion, make it a practice with force problems to look for ways to justify your numerical results and make them physically meaningful.

EXAMPLE 6

A large promotional balloon is tethered to the top of a building by two guy wires attached at points 20 m apart. If the buoyant force on the balloon is 850 N, and the two guy wires make angles of 58 and 66 with the horizontal, find the tension in each of the wires. Solution First draw the position diagram showing where the forces act. In this problem, the resultant of the two tensions must be 850 N to counterbalance the buoyant force of the balloon, which is the equilibrant. In making the force diagram, draw the tension vectors parallel to the corresponding lines in the position diagram. In the diagrams, observe step by step how the angles in the position diagram are first translated into the force diagram, and then how these angles are used to determine the angles inside the force triangle.
24
850 N

850 N T1 T2

T2 66 58

58

66

Position Diagram

T1 58 Force Diagram

Since all three angles in the force triangle are known, the magnitudes of the tension vectors T1 and T2 can be calculated using the sine law,
T1 sin 24
850 sin 124 850 sin 24 sin 124

and and

T2 sin 32

850 . sin 124 850 sin 32 sin 124

Therefore T1

T2

417 N

543 N

The tensions in the guy wires are approximately 417 N and 543 N, with the guy wire at the steeper angle having the greater tension.
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EXAMPLE 7

Is it possible for an object to be in a state of equilibrium when forces of 10 N, 20 N, and 40 N act on it? Solution An object will be in a state of equilibrium when the resultant of all the forces acting on it is zero. This means that the three given force vectors must form a triangle. By the triangle inequality theorem, the sum of any two sides must be greater than the third, but in this case the magnitudes of the forces are such that 10 20 40. Therefore, an object cannot be in a state of equilibrium with the three given forces acting on it. In the discussion of forces in the previous examples, we assumed that an object is free to move in the direction of the force acting on it. Often, however, that is not the case. For example, when you push a lawn mower, you exert a force along the handle, but the mower does not move into the ground along the line of the force. It moves horizontally. So, how much of the force that you exert actually contributes to the motion? To answer this question, we must resolve the force into horizontal and vertical components. The components are the magnitudes of forces acting horizontally and vertically, whose sum, by vector addition, is the original force.

force

motion

vertical component

force

horizontal component

EXAMPLE 8

A lawn mower is pushed with a force of 90 N directed along the handle, which makes an angle of 36 with the ground. a. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the force on the mower. b. Describe the physical consequences of each component of the pushing force. Solution a. The force diagram is a right triangle. The components are Fh 90 cos(36) 72.8 N and Fv 90 sin(36) 52.9 N
Fv

Fh 36

b. The horizontal component of the force, 72.8 N, moves the lawnmower forward across the grass. The vertical component of the force, 52.9 N, is in the same direction (down) as the force of gravity.

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EXAMPLE 9

A 20-kg trunk is resting on a ramp inclined at an angle of 15. Calculate the components of the force of gravity on the trunk that are parallel and perpendicular to the ramp. Describe the physical consequences of each. Solution The force of gravity on the trunk is (20 kg) (9.8 m/s2) The parallel and perpendicular components are Fp 196 sin 15 and 51 N Fn 196 cos 15 189 N

196 N acting down.

Fp

15 196 N position diagram

Fn 15 196 N force diagram

The parallel component points down the slope of the ramp. It tends to cause the trunk to slide down the slope. It is opposed by the force of friction acting up the slope. The perpendicular component presses the trunk against the ramp. The magnitude of the force of friction is proportional to this component.

Exercise 4.3
Part A
Communication

1. Name some common household objects on which the force of gravity is approximately 2 N; 20 N; 200 N. What is your weight in newtons? 2. Find the horizontal and vertical components of each of the following forces. a. 200 N acting at an angle of 30 to the horizontal b. 160 N acting at an angle of 71 to the horizontal c. 75 N acting at an angle of 51 to the vertical d. 36 N acting vertically 3. Find the resultant of each pair of forces acting on an object. a. forces of 7 N east and 12 N west b. forces of 7 N east and 12 N north c. forces of 6 N southwest and 8 N northwest d. forces of 6 N southeast and 8 N northwest

Knowledge/ Understanding

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141

Part B 4. Find the magnitude of the resultant of the four forces shown in the given diagram.
10 N

9N 7N 5N

5. Two forces F1 and F2 act at right angles to each other. Express the magnitude and direction of F1 F2 in terms of F1 and F2. 6. Find the magnitude and the direction (to the nearest degree) of the resultant of each of the following systems of forces. a. forces of 3 N and 8 N acting at an angle of 60 to each other b. forces of 15 N and 8 N acting at an angle of 130 to each other 7. Find the magnitude and direction of the equilibrant of each of the following systems of forces. a. forces of 32 N and 48 N acting at an angle of 90 to each other b. forces of 16 N and 10 N acting at an angle of 10 to each other
Communication

8. Is it easier to pull yourself up doing chin-ups when your hands are 60 cm apart or 120 cm apart? Explain your answer. 9. A mass of 10 kg is suspended from a ceiling by two cords that make angles of 30 and 45 with the ceiling. Find the tension in each of the cords. 10. Two forces of equal magnitude act at 60 to each other. If their resultant has a magnitude of 30 N, find the magnitude of the equal forces. 11. Which of the following sets of forces acting on an object could produce equilibrium? a. 5 N, 2 N, 13 N b. 7 N, 5 N, 5 N c. 13 N, 27 N, 14 N d. 12 N, 26 N, 13 N

Knowledge/ Understanding

12. Three forces of 5 N, 7 N, and 8 N are applied to an object. If the object is in a state of equilibrium a. show how the forces must be arranged b. calculate the angle between the lines of action of the 5 N and 7 N forces 13. A man weighing 70 kg lies in a hammock whose ropes make angles of 20 and 25 with the horizontal. What is the tension in each rope? 14. A steel wire 40 m long is suspended between two fixed points 20 m apart. A force of 375 N pulls the wire down at a point 15 m from one end of the wire. State the tension in each part of the wire.

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15. An advertising sign is supported by a horizontal steel brace extending at right angles from the side of a building, and by a wire attached to the building above the brace at an angle of 25. If the force of gravity on the sign is 850 N, find the tension in the wire and the compression in the steel brace. 16. Find the x-and y-components of each of the vectors u, v, and w.
65 w = 12 y

25

u =5 40

v =9

17. A tractor is towing a log using a cable inclined at an angle of 15 to the horizontal. If the tension in the cable is 1470 N, what is the horizontal force moving the log? 18. A piece of luggage is on a conveyer belt that is inclined at an angle of 28. If the luggage has a mass of 20 kg a. determine the components of the force of gravity parallel to and perpendicular to the conveyer belt b. explain the physical effect of each of these components 19. A child with a mass of 35 kg is sitting on a swing attached to a tree branch by a rope 5 m in length. The child is pulled back 1.5 m measured horizontally. a. What horizontal force will hold the child in this position? b. What is the tension in the rope?
Application

20. The main rotor of a helicopter produces a force of 55 kN. If the helicopter flies with the rotor revolving about an axis tilted at an angle of 8 to the vertical a. find the components of the rotor force parallel to and perpendicular to the ground b. explain the physical effect on the helicopter of each component of the rotor force 21. In order to keep a 250-kg crate from sliding down a ramp inclined at 25, the force of friction that acts parallel to and up the ramp must have a magnitude of at least how many newtons? 22. A lawn roller with a mass of 50 kg is being pulled with a force of 320 N. If the handle of the roller makes an angle of 42 with the ground, what horizontal component of the force is causing the roller to move?

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Part C 23. Three forces, each of which is perpendicular to the other two, act on an object. If the magnitudes of these forces are 6 N, 15 N, and 10 N, respectively, find the magnitude and direction of the resultant. (State the angles that the resultant makes with the two larger forces.)

10 N 15 N 6N

24. Two tugs are towing a ship. The smaller tug is 10 off the port bow and the larger tug is 20 off the starboard bow. The larger tug pulls twice as hard as the smaller tug. In what direction will the ship move? 25. Braided cotton string will break when the tension exceeds 300 N. Suppose that a weight of 400 N is suspended from a 200-cm length of string, the upper ends of which are tied to a horizontal rod at points 120 cm apart. a. Show that the string will support the weight, when the weight is hung at the centre of the string.
120 cm 100 cm 100 cm

400 N

b. Will the string break if the weight is 80 cm from one end of the string?

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Section 4.4 Velocity as a Vector

In elementary problems, the speed of a moving object is calculated by dividing the distance travelled by the travel time. In advanced work, speed is defined more carefully as the rate of change of distance with time. In any case, speed is a quantity having magnitude only, so it is classified as a scalar. When the direction of motion as well as its magnitude is important, the correct term to use is velocity. Velocity is a vector quantity. Speed is the magnitude of a velocity. Velocity vectors can be added. When you walk forward in the aisle of an aircraft in flight, the 2-km/hr velocity of your walk adds to the 500-km/hr velocity of the plane, making your total velocity 502 km/hr. When two velocities are not in the same direction, the resultant velocity determined from the addition of two velocity vectors is nevertheless a meaningful, physical quantity.

EXAMPLE 1

A canoeist who can paddle at a speed of 5 km/h in still water wishes to cross a river 400 m wide that has a current of 2 km/h. If he steers the canoe in a direction perpendicular to the current, determine the resultant velocity. Find the point on the opposite bank where the canoe touches. Solution As the canoe moves through the water, it is carried sideways by the current. So even though its heading is straight across the current, its actual direction of motion is along a line angling downstream determined by the sum of the velocity vectors. From the vector diagram, v2 v (5)2 29 (2)2 and tan
2 5

400 m

current

Vector Diagram 5 km/h 2 km/h

5.4 km/h

21.8

Therefore, the canoeist crosses the river at a speed of 5.4 km/h along a line at an angle of about 22. The displacement triangle is similar to the vector triangle.
5 km/h 2 km/h v 400 m x

x 2

400 5

160

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He touches the opposite bank at a point 160 m downstream from the point directly opposite his starting point. We could also find x using the angle , but we must be careful not to round off in the process.

EXAMPLE 2

Suppose the canoeist of Example 1 had wished to travel straight across the river. Determine the direction he must head and the time it will take him to cross the river.

400 m current

Solution In order to travel directly across the river, the canoeist must steer the canoe slightly upstream. This time, it is the vector sum, not the heading of the canoe, which is perpendicular to the river bank. From the vector diagram, v2 v (5)2 21 (2)2 and sin ( )
2 5

Vector Diagram
5 km /h

2 km/h

4.6 km/h

23.6

Therefore, to travel straight across the river, the canoeist must head upstream at an angle of about 24. His crossing speed will be about 4.6 km/h. The time it takes to cross the river is calculated from t
river width crossing speed 0.4 21
(where the width is 0.4 km) (we avoid using rounded values if possible)

0.087 h or 5.2 min It takes the canoeist approximately 5.2 minutes to cross the river. Wind affects a planes speed and direction much the same way that current affects a boats. The airspeed of a plane is the planes speed relative to the mass of air it is flying in. This may be different in both magnitude and direction from the planes ground speed, depending on the strength and direction of the wind.

EXAMPLE 3

An airplane heading northwest at 500 km/h encounters a wind of 120 km/h from 25 north of east. Determine the resultant ground velocity of the plane. Solution Since the wind is blowing from 25 north of east, it can be represented by a vector whose direction is west 25 south. This wind will blow the plane off its course,

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changing both its ground speed and its heading. Let v be the airspeed of the plane and w be the wind speed. On a set of directional axes, draw the two velocity vectors. Then draw the resultant velocity using the parallelogram law of vector addition.
Plane Heading N B v v +w W 45 Wind direction S E W A w S O E C N

In parallelogram OCBA, COA 45 25 70, so OAB 110. Then, in OAB, two sides and the included angle are known, so the magnitude of the resultant velocity can be calculated using the cosine law.
B

v w2 v w

5002 1202 552.7

2(500)(120) cos 110

500

v +w 110 A 120 O

Store this answer in your calculator memory. Next, AOB can be calculated from the sine law.
sin AOB 500
sin 110 v w

(use the value of v + w calculated above)

AOB WOB

58.2 58.2 25 33.2

The resultant velocity has direction 33 north of west and a magnitude of 553 km/h.

110 45 65 45 25 A

A key step in solving problems such as that in Example 3 is to find an angle in the triangle formed by the vectors. Here is a helpful hint: identify which angle is formed by vectors whose directions are given, and draw small axes at the vertex of that angle. The diagram shows this alternate way to calculate that OAB 110 in Example 3. Vectors are needed to describe situations where two objects are moving relative to one another. When astronauts want to dock the space shuttle with the international space station, they must match the velocities of the two craft. As they approach, astronauts on each spacecraft can picture themselves to be stationary and the other craft to be moving. When they finally dock, even though the two spacecraft are orbiting the earth at thousands of miles per hour, their relative velocity is zero.
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Relative velocity is the difference of two velocities. It is what an observer measures, when he perceives himself to be stationary. The principle that all velocities are relative was originally formulated by Einstein and became a cornerstone of his Theory of Relativity. When two objects A and B have velocities vA and vB, respectively, the velocity of B relative to A is vrel vB vA

EXAMPLE 4

A car travelling east at 110 km/h passes a truck going in the opposite direction at 96 km/h. a. What is the velocity of the truck relative to the car? b. The truck turns onto a side road and heads northwest at the same speed. Now what is the velocity of the truck relative to the car? Solution The vector diagram shows the velocity vectors of the car and the truck. These velocities are relative to someone standing by the side of the road, watching the two vehicles pass by. Since the car is going east, let its velocity be vcar 110. Then the trucks velocity is vtruck 96. vrel vtruck vcar ( 96) (110) 206 km/h or 206 km/h west

v truck v rel v truck

v car

v car

This is the velocity that the truck appears to have, according to the driver of the car. b. After the truck turns, the angle between the car and the truck velocities is 135. The magnitude of the sum is found using the cosine law. vrel2 vrel (96)2 (110)2 190.4 km/h 2(96)(110) cos 135
v truck v truck 135 v car v rel v car

(Store this in your calculator.)

The angle of the relative velocity vector can be calculated from the sine law.
sin 96 sin 135 190.4

20.9

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After the truck turns, its velocity is 190 km/h in a direction W 21 N relative to the car. Note that the relative velocity of the two vehicles does not depend on their position. It remains the same as long as the two vehicles continue to travel in the same directions without any changes in their velocities.

Exercise 4.4
Part A
Communication

1. A plane is heading due east. Will its ground speed be greater than or less than its airspeed, and will its flight path be north or south of east when the wind is from a. N b. S 80 W c. S 30 E d. N 80 E

Knowledge/ Understanding

2. A man can swim 2 km/h in still water. Find at what angle to the bank he must head if he wishes to swim directly across a river flowing at a speed of a. 1 km/h b. 4 km/h

Knowledge/ Understanding

3. A streetcar, a bus, and a taxi are travelling along a city street at speeds of 35, 42, and 50 km/h, respectively. The streetcar and the taxi are travelling north; the bus is travelling south. Find a. the velocity of the streetcar relative to the taxi b. the velocity of the streetcar relative to the bus c. the velocity of the taxi relative to the bus d. the velocity of the bus relative to the streetcar Part B 4. A river is 2 km wide and flows at 6 km/h. A motor boat that has a speed of 20 km/h in still water heads out from one bank perpendicular to the current. A marina lies directly across the river on the opposite bank. a. How far downstream from the marina will the boat reach the other bank? b. How long will it take? 5. An airplane is headed north with a constant velocity of 450 km/h. The plane encounters a west wind blowing at 100 km/h. a. How far will the plane travel in 3 h? b. What is the direction of the plane?

Application

6. A light plane is travelling at 175 km/h on a heading of N8 E in a 40-km/h wind from N80 E. Determine the planes ground velocity.
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Application

7. A boat heads 15 west of north with a water speed of 3 m/s. Determine its velocity relative to the ground when there is a 2 m/s current from 40 east of north. 8. A plane is steering east at a speed of 240 km/h. What is the ground speed of the plane if the wind is from the northwest at 65 km/h? What is the planes actual direction? 9. Upon reaching a speed of 215 km/h on the runway, a jet raises its nose to an angle of 18 with the horizontal and begins to lift off the ground. a. Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of its velocity at this moment. b. What is the physical interpretation of each of these components of the jets velocity? 10. A pilot wishes to fly to an airfield S20 E of his present position. If the average airspeed of the plane is 520 km/h and the wind is from N80 E at 46 km/h, a. in what direction should the pilot steer? b. what will the planes ground speed be? 11. A destroyer detects a submarine 8 nautical miles due east travelling northeast at 20 knots. If the destroyer has a top speed of 30 knots, at what heading should it travel to intercept the submarine? Part C 12. An airplane flies from to Toronto to Vancouver and back. Determine which time is shorter. a. The time for the round trip when there is a constant wind blowing from Vancouver to Toronto. b. The time for the round trip when there is no wind. 13. A sailor climbs a mast at 0.5 m/s on a ship travelling north at 12 m/s, while the current flows east at 3 m/s. What is the speed of the sailor relative to the ocean floor? 14. A car is 260 m north and a truck 170 m west of an intersection. They are both approaching the intersection, the car from the north at 80 km/h, and the truck from the west at 50 km/h. Determine the velocity of the truck relative to the car.

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Key Concepts Review

In this chapter, you have been introduced to the concept of a vector and have seen some applications of vectors. Perhaps the most important mathematical skill to develop from this chapter is that of combining vectors through vector addition, both graphically and algebraically. Diagrams drawn free hand are sufficient, but try to make them realistic. It is not difficult to draw angles that are correct to within about 10 and to make lengths roughly proportional to the magnitudes of the vectors in a problem. Once you have calculated answers, ask yourself if the calculated angles and magnitudes are consistent with your diagram, and if they are physically reasonable.

SUMS
Speaking informally, if you want to go from A to C you can travel directly along the vector AC, or you can detour through B, travelling first along AB, and then along BC. This means that AC AB BC, but observe how the detour point fits into the equation: it is the second letter of the first vector and the first letter of the second vector.
D C

DIFFERENCES
Using the same diagram, if you want to go from D to B, you can travel directly along DB, or you can detour through A, travelling first backwards along AD, and then forwards along AB. This translates into the equation DB AD AB, which of course is just the difference DB AB AD. Note carefully that, on the right hand side of the equation, the order of the initial point D and the end point B are reversed, and the detour point is the initial letter of the two vectors. Pay attention to and become familiar with details such as these. You will be able to draw and interpret vector diagrams and handle vector equations more quickly and correctly if you do.
KEY CONCEPTS REVIEW

151