Reference Model-----------4 Hrs

• Protocols and Standards

• Interfaces and Services
• OSI Layers
• TCP/IP Layers
• Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP
• Networking Hardware: NIC, Hub, Repeater, Switches,
Bridge, Router
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Protocols and Standards

What is Protocol?

• In Order to make communication successful between devices,

some rules and procedures should be agreed upon at the sending
and receiving ends of the system.
• Different types of protocols are used for different types of
communication.
• Examples: FTP, HTTP, POP etc
Standards:

• Set of rules for data communication that are needed for exchange
of information among devices.
• It is important to follow Standards which are created by various
Standard Organization
o like IEEE, ISO, ANSI etc.

Types of Standards:

Standards are of two types:

• De Facto Standard: ” By Fact ” or “By Convention”:-

o Have not been approved by any Organization , but have

been adopted as Standards

o Apple and Google are two companies which established

their own rules on their products which are different.

 • De Jure Standard: “By Law” or “By Regulations”.
o Have been approved by officially recognized body like

ANSI , ISO , IEEE etc.

o Important to follow worldwide if it is required or needed.

o All the data communication standard protocols like SMTP ,

TCP , IP , UDP etc. are important to follow the same when

we needed them.
o

Standard Organizations
Some Standard Creation committees are:
TIA - Telecommunications Industry Association
• International Organization of Standardization(ISO)
• American National Standards Institute(ANSI)
• Electronic Industries Association(EIA)
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers(IEEE)
ITU - T : International Telecommunications Union Telecommunication Sector

Interfaces and Services

• Interfaces are networking communication points for your

computer.
• Each interface is associated with a physical or virtual networking
device.
• For instance, if you have two network cards in your computer,
you can control and configure each network interface associated
with them individually.
• Typically, your server will have one configurable network
interface for each Ethernet or wireless internet card you have.
OSI Layers
What Is the OSI Model

• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes

different types of layers (seven layers) that computer systems
use to communicate over a network.
• OSI was introduced in 1983 by representatives of the major
computer and telecom companies, and was adopted by ISO as
an international standard in 1984.
• The modern Internet is not based on OSI, but on the simpler
TCP/IP model.
How to remember the OSI Model 7 layers:

From Application to Physical (Layer 7 to Layer 1)

• All People Seem To Need Data Processing

From Physical to Application (Layer 1 to Layer 7)

• Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away

 Fig -OSI model in short

We can describe OSI layers “top down” from the application layer
that directly serves the end user, down to the physical layer.

7. Application Layer

• The application layer is used by end-user software such as web

browsers and email clients.
• Some examples of application layer protocols are the Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Post
Office Protocol (POP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP), and Domain Name System (DNS).
•
6. Presentation Layer

• It defines how two devices should encode, encrypt, and

compress data so it is received correctly on the other end.

5. Session Layer

• The session layer creates communication channels, called

sessions, between devices.
• It is responsible for opening sessions, ensuring they remain open
and functional while data is being transferred, and closing them
when communication ends.

4. Transport Layer

• The transport layer takes data transferred in the session layer

and breaks it into “segments” on the transmitting end.
• The transport layer carries out flow control, sending data at a rate
that matches the connection speed of the receiving device, and
error control, checking if data was received incorrectly and if
not, requesting it again.

3. Network Layer

• The other function is routing packets by discovering the best path

across a physical network.
• The network layer uses network addresses (typically Internet
Protocol addresses) to route packets to a destination node.
2. Data Link Layer

• The data link layer establishes and terminates a connection

between two physically-connected nodes on a network.
• It breaks up packets into frames and sends them from source to
destination.
• This layer is composed of two parts
o Logical Link Control (LLC), which identifies network
protocols, performs error checking and synchronizes
frames, and
o Media Access Control (MAC) which uses MAC addresses
to connect devices and define permissions to transmit and
receive data.

1. Physical Layer

• The physical layer is responsible for the physical cable or

wireless connection between network nodes.
• It defines the connector, the electrical cable or wireless
technology connecting the devices, and is responsible for
transmission of the raw data, which is simply a series of 0s
and 1s, while taking care of bit rate control.
Following tasks are done on different layers of OSI Model:

• Error detection and correction = Transport layer

• Encryption and decryption of data = Presentation layer
• Logical identification of computer = Network layer
• Physical identification of computer = Data link layer
• Point-to-point socket connection = Transport layer
• Dialogue control = Session layer
• Data framing = Data link layer
• Timing and voltage of received signals = Physical layer
TCP/IP Layers

• The TCP/IP model is a part of the Internet Protocol Suite.

• This model acts as a communication protocol for computer
networks and connects hosts on the Internet.
• It is a concise version (or implementation version) of the OSI
Model and comprises four layers in its structure.

Basics of TCP/IP Model

Transmission Control
Full-Form
Protocol/ Internet Protocol
Department of Defence
Developed By
(DoD), United States
Developed in During the 1970s
Year for acknowledgement as a
1983
standard protocol by ARPANET
Collecting and Reassembling
Function of TCP
Data Packets
Sending the Data Packets to
Function of IP
the correct destination
Number of Layers in TCP/IP Model 4 layers

Layers of the TCP/IP Model

Unlike the OSI model which comprises seven layers, the TCP/IP
model is structured with four different layers. These four layers are:

1. Network Access Layer

2. Internet Layer
 3. Host to Host Layer
4. Application Layer

Explanation of Layers:

1. Network Access Layer

• It is a combination of the Data Link and Physical Layer of the

OSI model
• Also, the mapping of IP address into physical address is done
here
• Main function:
o - to transmit the data between two devices, connected in
a network
2. Internet Layer

• Parallel to the Network Layer of the OSI Model, in terms of

the structure
• Main function of the Internet layer:
o Sending the data packets to their destination network

o The logical transmission of data takes place at this level

• There are three different protocols used in this layer:

o IP: It is using this protocol that the path with which the data

shall be transmitted is decided.

o ARP: It stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

▪ Finds The physical address (MAC) from the IP

address
o ICMP: It stands for Internet Control Message Protocol

▪ Any issue with the network is immediately notified

to the user by ICMP.

3. Host-To-Host Layer

• Also called transport layer

• This layer is parallel to the transport layer of the OSI Model
• The main function of this layer:
o The error-free delivery of data
 • There are two main protocols present in this layer:
o TCP:

▪ Transmission Control Protocol is a reliable

communication protocol.
▪ Connection oriented protocol

▪ It manages the flow of data, i.e. the sequence and

segmentation of the data

o UDP:

▪ It is a connection-free (connectionless) protocol which

makes it cost-effective but less reliable.

4. Application Layer

• The topic three layers of the OSI Model: Application,

Presentation and Sessions, when combined together, they
perform similar functions as the Application Layer of the TCP/IP
model
• Multiple protocols are present in this layer, a few common ones
have been mentioned below in brief:
o HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol is used to manage the

communication between the server and web browsers

o NTP: Network Time Protocol can set one standard time

source in our computer, which enables sync between the

server and the user
 o TELNET: Telecommunication Network is used to have
access to files present of the Telnet network and manage
them on internet
o FTP: File Transfer Protocol, as the name suggests allows
easy transferring of files

Other protocols of Application layer include:

• Network File System (NFS),

• Secure Shell (SSH),
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP),
• Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP), etc.

Similarities & Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP

Similarities between the TCP/IP model and the OSI model

• Both are logical models.

• Both define standards for networking.
• Both provide a framework for creating and implementing
networking standards and devices.
• Both divide the network communication process into layers.
• In both models, a single layer defines a particular functionality
and sets standards for that functionality only.
Differences between the OSI model and the TCP/IP model

• The OSI Layer model has seven layers while the TCP/IP model
has four layers.
• The OSI Layer model is no longer used while the TCP/IP is still
used in computer networking.
• To define the functionalities of upper layers, the OSI model uses
three separate layers (Application, Presentation, and Session)
while the TCP/IP model uses a single layer (Application).
• Just like the upper layers, the OSI model uses two separate layers
(Physical and Data-link) to define the functionalities of the
bottom layers while the TCP/IP uses a single layer (Link layer)
for the same.
• To define the routing protocols and standards, the OSI model
uses the Network layer while the TCP/IP model uses the
Internet layer.
• The OSI model is well documented than the TCP/IP model.
• The OSI model explains every standard and protocol in detail
while the TCP/IP model provides a summarized version of the
same.
Updated TCP/IP model

The following figure compares the OSI reference model, the

original TCP/IP model, and the updated TCP/IP model.

In general comparison, the updated TCP/IP model is much or less

similar to the OSI model except for the Application layer.
Networking Hardware:
NIC, Hub, Repeater, Switches, Bridge, Router

Computer Network Components

Computer network components are the major parts which are needed
to install the software. Some important network components are NIC,
switch, cable, hub, router, and modem. Depending on the type of
network that we need to install, some network components can also be
removed. For example, the wireless network does not require a cable.

Following are the major components required to install a network:

NIC

• NIC stands for network interface card.

• NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with
another computer onto a network
• It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mbps
• The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the
network card chip which is assigned by the IEEE to identify a
network card uniquely.
• The MAC address is stored in the PROM (Programmable read-
only memory).
There are two types of NIC:

1. Wired NIC
2. Wireless NIC

Wired NIC:

• The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard. Cables and

connectors are used with wired NIC to transfer data.

Wireless NIC:

• The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the connection

over the wireless network. For example, laptop computer contains
the wireless NIC.

Router

• A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN

with an internet connection. It is used to receive, analyze and
forward the incoming packets to another network.
• A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI
Reference model.
 • A router forwards the packet based on the information available
in the routing table.
• It determines the best path from the available paths for the
transmission of the packet.

Gateway –
• A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two
networks that may work upon different networking models.
• Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at
any network layer.
• A gateway is also called a protocol converter.

Switch –

• A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that

can boost its efficiency (a large number of ports imply less
traffic) and performance.
• A switch is a data link layer device.
• The switch can perform error checking before forwarding
data, which makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets
that have errors and forward good packets selectively to the
correct port only.
Repeater –

• A repeater operates only on the physical layer.

• It regenerates the weak signal and increases the range of the
network.
• Functionality of the network remains unchanged by the use of
repeater.
• Switch can be used as a repeater but hub cannot be used as a
repeater.

Hub –

• A hub is a basically multi-port repeater.

• A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches,
for example, the connector in star topology which connects
different stations.
• Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the best path
for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
Types of Hub

• Active Hub:-
o It serves both as a repeater as well as a wiring center.

o These are used to extend the maximum distance between

nodes.
• Passive Hub:-
o These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power

supply from the active hub. These hubs relay signals onto
the network without cleaning and boosting them and can’t be
used to extend the distance between nodes.
o

Bridge –

• A bridge operates at the data link layer.

• A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality of filtering
content by reading the MAC addresses of the source and
destination.
• It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the
same protocol.
• It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2
port device.