Journal of King Saud University – Science 35 (2023) 102916

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Journal of King Saud University – Science

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Original article

Application of non-destructive geophysical methods for testing concrete

structures
Majed Almalki
Mining and Hydrocarbon Research Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Non-destructive testing of reinforced concrete structures is of utmost importance in construction and
Received 10 June 2023 civil engineering, where many factors can cause internal and external deterioration of reinforced concrete
Revised 8 July 2023 structures: the environment, nuclear radiation, and structural defects, among others. Geophysical non-
Accepted 21 September 2023
destructive testing methods such as ultrasonic and radar have been increasingly used in civil engineering
Available online 26 September 2023
in recent years. Improvements in the ultrasonic testing of concrete have produced detailed images of the
interiors of even the most complex structures and allowed for the earliest possible detection of deterio-
Keywords:
ration. In this study, three geophysical methods were applied to inspect concrete structures: parallel seis-
Non-destructive testing
Parallel seismic
mic, sonic echo, and ultra-seismic. These three testing methods are applied to concrete foundations of
Sonic echo two depths, namely 5, and 7 m; the deep foundation has a fracture at a depth of 4.5 m. The collected data
Ultra-seismic are processed using a low-pass filter to remove the higher frequencies. These results of parallel seismic
Concrete structures tests accurately predict foundation depths of 5.0 and 6.6 m and P-wave velocities of 2551 and 1097 m/s,
respectively. Sonic echo tests yield depth predictions of 5.07 and 7.01 m for the tested foundations and
4.44 m for the depth of the crack. Meanwhile, ultra-seismic tests give depth predictions of 7.1 and 4.6 m
for the foundation and fracture, respectively, while clarifying the P-wave velocities of the corresponding
reflections: 3447 m/s exiting the 7-m foundation and 2668 m/s exiting the embedded fracture. Depth
estimates based on each method show strong agreement with true depths. In conclusion, these three geo-
physical methods have great potential to provide quantitative data to drive quality assurance and reme-
diation for concrete structures.
Ó 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University. This is an open access
article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction (Tosti et al., 2020; Catapano et al., 2020). Underlying factors

include chemical mechanisms (carbonization, corrosion, corrosive
Heterogeneity in concrete is a major problem, whether in the environmental influence, material component reactions) and bio-
form of fractures, cracks, aggregates, or other degradation features. logical mechanisms (activities of plants, microbes, and animals in
Long-term exposure to severe weather conditions necessitates an concrete structures) (Kim et al., 2003; Holä et al., 2015; Tosti and
assessment of the structural soundness and dependability of con- Ferrante, 2019). In practice, the combination of diverse mecha-
crete. The type and strength of the degradation mechanism acting nisms usually manifests as a complex degradation process that
on the concrete structure determine the durability of the concrete harms the structure and eventually defines its service life (Solla
structure, as do the structure’s resistance to degradation physical et al., 2019).
factors such as rheological processes, corrosion, crystallization, Corrosion of reinforcing steel is one of the key problems impact-
leaching, overload, fatigue, temperature, and humidity variation ing the service life of reinforced concrete (RC). Such corrosion is
caused by the damaging oxidation of the steel when exposed to
harsh conditions, particularly chloride ions and/or carbon dioxide
(Hasan and Yazdani, 2016, Teši et al., 2021). Due to the pressures
E-mail address: [email protected] exerted by the expansive oxide and the reduction or exhaustion
Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University.
of the adhesion between the reinforcement and the concrete, the
consequences of the destructive action of oxidation present as a
decrease in the steel cross-section, cracks in the concrete, and even
lamination of the concrete (Prego et al., 2016). Internal flaws
Production and hosting by Elsevier
include voids and corrosion, while external defects include

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2023.102916
1018-3647/Ó 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
M. Almalki Journal of King Saud University – Science 35 (2023) 102916

honeycombing, delamination, and rough surfaces. Numerous throughout its lifetime (Vecchio and Bucci, 1999). Unfortunately,
catastrophic outcomes can result from concrete defects, such as many concrete structures begin to show serious signs of degrada-
decreased load capacity and ductility, crack propagation, structural tion after only 20 to 30 years due to the combined action of
member failure, and collapse (Richart et al., 1928). mechanical and environmental influences. Such degradation
For these reasons, structural quality assessment is crucial. One occurs predominantly as a result of corrosion, and corrosion-
of the most prevalent approaches to inspecting RC structures is related maintenance expenditures thus account for more than 3%
non-destructive testing (NDT; Álvarez et al., 2023). In recent years, of worldwide gross domestic product (GDP) annually.
NDT methods have been used in a variety of engineering and geo- In areas prone to earthquakes, rock falls, and soil deformation, a
science fields (Almalki, 2015). Advancements in the application of thorough geometric evaluation of the foundation can help ensure
electrical, electromagnetic, optical, and acoustic NDT methods the safety of the structure. However, older structures’ architectural
have led to the establishment of their standalone use in many sec- blueprints may not be readily available, casting doubt on claims
tors. Many of these methodologies have now been thoroughly regarding the depth of the foundation, the geometry of the struc-
studied and evaluated (Wong et al., 2019). New theoretical ture, or the structure’s ability to withstand natural disasters. As a
advancements, improvements to hardware and software compo- result, a reliable strategy must be implemented for evaluating
nents, and the discovery of new surveying and data processing the geometries of existing foundations. Ultrasonic measurements
methods and interpretations have been the primary foci of are used in fields as diverse as digital rock physics, well inspection,
research. Therefore, the quality of NDT results is now very high, military and industrial equipment, and medicine (Meyers et al.
and data can be captured quite precisely with current technology. 1960; Fry et al. 1962), among others. Recent years have seen signif-
The next scientific challenge on the horizon is to integrate sensing icant advances in a number of ultrasonic techniques, making them
methodologies to significantly improve the capabilities of existing increasingly essential for many problems in civil engineering
NDT technology in the face of new and complex scenarios. The involving the assessment of the condition of reinforced concrete
need for more efficient methods to probe unusual situations is (RC) structures. Some examples of this technology’s many uses
driving this development. are flow detection (Bohs and Trahey, 1991), mapping internal
In the case of Italy, for example, every structure must conform objects or flaws (Schickert, 2005), and length assessment of con-
to the Structure Act’s basic standards for structures and other crete shafts following devastating earthquakes (Richard et al.,
requirements, such as those pertaining to its intended use, 1998).

Fig. 1a. GIS-based map of KACST test site.

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Alani and Lantini (2020), provide a summary of the literature of GPR and linear variable displacement transducers (LVDT) to
that has been published on the topic of evaluating and tracking monitor the structural stability of historic buildings is the main
tree roots’ interactions with the soil. The evaluation of the primary topic of discussion. The use of these two methods to monitor crack-
destructive and NDT methodologies points out a dearth of ing at the iconic Consoli Palace in Gubbio, Italy, is the subject of a
research-based outputs in the areas of soil interaction and tree- case study. The findings show consistency between the LVDT and
root interconnection. The application of non-invasive electromag- GPR methods’ outputs as well as their ability to track the expan-
netic sensing technologies and civil engineering investigation tech- sion and contraction cycles of cracking in masonry structures
niques in tandem for the structural health monitoring of historical caused by seasonal temperature variations and, respectively, the
and cultural assets is covered by Ludeno et al. (2020). The capacity geometry of the inner walls. Catapano et al. (2020) provide an

Fig. 1b. Flowchart methodology of the current study.

Fig. 2. A schematic of Parallel Seismic test procedure. The travel time-depth plot (right) shows the intersection point where the depth of the foundation may occur.

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overview of various electromagnetic imaging methods for applica- tions of this testing technique. The PS method necessitates the
tions in the field of cultural heritage, ranging from microwave to installation of a 2.32-inch slanted cased borehole (i.e., ASTM D
ultraviolet range of frequencies. Hoła and Sadowski (2022) are 4428/D 4428 M) adjacent to the foundation in order to conduct
devoted to the identification of cracks in concrete Three different the necessary tests. The borehole is subsequently filled with water
lenses and two digital cameras were used to record line images (or left empty when employing a 3-component (3C) geophone) in
with a thickness of 0.1 to 0.5 mm. While other recent studies order to detect the radiated waves with a hydrophone. The stress
(Jeong et al., 2021; Javed et al., 2023; Dolati et al., 2023; Malla waves are generated by an external force delivered by an instru-
et al. 2023; Ortiz et al., 2023) examine the effectiveness of two of mented hammer to the top or any accessible area of the founda-
the most popular NDT techniques, phased array ultrasonic (PAU) tion; these waves then travel down the foundation and are
and ground penetrating radar (GPR), in finding Fiber Reinforced picked up by a hydrophone in the borehole. Hydrophones are
Polymer FRP bars and strands embedded in concrete components. placed at regular intervals along the borehole in order to collect
The effectiveness of several ultrasonic techniques for estimating data at various depths. Repeating the source (here, an impact ham-
the lengths of undamaged or defective piles has been the subject of mer) at multiple measurement sites and stacking the resulting data
extensive field experiments. Drilled shafts were evaluated by Finno can increase the signal-to-noise ratio. The collected information is
and Gassman (1998) using the impulse response technique. They used to create a signal-versus-depth diagram (Fig. 2). In most
showed that three factors all affect the method’s accuracy: the cases, the depth of a structure’s foundation can be estimated based
ratio of the shaft’s length to its depth, the ratio of the shear wave on the intersection point, on a travel-time plot, of the foundation
velocity of the surrounding soil to the propagation velocity of the velocity line and the soil velocity line (Liao et al., 2006).
concrete, and the soil stratigraphy. The reflection response of
embedded flaws under the impact echo method was demonstrated
in finite element research by Lin et al. (1997). They brought atten-
tion to the impact echo approach’s capacity to identify the pres-
ence of cracks, voids, and layers of low-quality concrete in
concrete shafts. Lo et al. (2009) detailed an experimental technique
for applying the parallel seismic (PS) method in estimating the
depth of a foundation of unknown depth. The PS approach can
non-destructively provide information regarding pile geometry
and depth at a low cost (Olson et al., 1996; Ni et al., 2011). For
the determination of unknown bridge foundation depths, Olson
(2003) showed that the PS and ultra-seismic (US) methods were
generally applicable to both borehole and surface methods.
Through the current study, three global and worldwide geo-
physical methods; PS, US, and sonic echo (SE) of non-destructive
testing (NDT) have been applied to concrete structures in the King
Abdulaziz City of Science and Technology (KACST) testing site
(Fig. 1a) in order to; i) identify internal concrete fractures/cracks
and ii) determine the actual depths of the tested foundations.
Fig. 3. A schematic of Ultra- Seismic test geometry. Direct and reflected waves are
recorded using three-component accelerometers mounted at regular intervals on
2. Material and methods
the accessible side of the foundation. The source (impulse hammer) is located at the
top of the foundation.
The fundamentals of the used methods PS, US, and SE are out-
lined in Fig. 1b following the American Concrete Institute recom-
mendations (ACI.228.2R-98, 2004). The principle of each method
is discussed and the typical instrumentation is described. The test-
ing procedures are summarized and the data analysis methods are
explained. The advantages and limitations of the methods are
highlighted in ACI 228.2R-98 (2004). The methods used in this
study are non-destructive testing methods that have been used
recently in the quality control of concrete structures such as col-
umns and sidewalks. These methods have been selected based on
recommendations from civil and geotechnical engineering experts
due to an urgent need to evaluate the conditions of structures and
rehabilitation studies, and due to the increased demand for assess-
ing and determining the quality of large engineering projects and
prefabricated structures.

2.1. Parallel seismic method

Borehole seismic methods such as the PS technique are utilized

to determine the depths of foundations of unknown depths.
Researchers at the Center for Experimental Research and Studies
of Building and Construction developed the PS method in the
mid-1970s (Lo et al., 2009). Several publications, including Olson Fig. 4. The source and receiver location for the sonic echo method for accessible
(2003) and Olson et al. (2006), have provided exhaustive descrip- foundation top.

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M. Almalki Journal of King Saud University – Science 35 (2023) 102916

Fig. 5. Inclinometer PVC pipe used for preparing the borehole set for Parallel Seismic test. The insertion of a 3C geophone probe through the PVC pipe is illustrated.

2.2. Ultra-seismic method with anomalous acoustic impedance. A velocity transducer (geo-
phone) attached to the foundation head measures vibrations
The data generation and acquisition processes of the US method (Fig. 4).
require a relatively tall exposure of the foundation: 1.5–2 m. US Then the following equation is used to estimate the foundation
measurements are taken using a 3-component accelerometer and depth D based on the speed of compressional waves Vp traveling
an impulse hammer. The data can be collected from the accelerom- through the foundation and the time difference (t) between the
eter by inserting it on any side of the base. As can be seen in Fig. 3, first arrival waves and the reflected waves from the discontinuity.
the impact hammer is always sited at the topmost part of the col-
umn, and the time–depth profile is constructed by repeating the D ¼ V p  t p =2 ð1Þ
test at various accelerometer positions along the accessible vertical For concrete structures, Vp can range from 3,500 to 4,500 m/s
profile. The existence of internal defects is determined by demon- depending on factors including age, quality, and composition
strating an intersection point between the first arrivals (also (Popovics, 1994). In practice, sound propagates through high-
known as wave velocity within the foundation) and reflected quality concrete at  4000 m/s, but the propagation velocity in
energy from the bottom or any portion of the foundation. Conven- low-quality concrete is only  2000–3000 m/s. In this way, engi-
tional methods for analyzing geophysical borehole data are neering geophysical approaches allow for the straightforward
adapted for use with the US approach (Jalinoos and Olson, 1996). detection of defects in concrete.
Processing steps include an automatic gain control, a band-pass fil-
ter operating from 0 to 0.5 and from 3 to 4 kHz, and the elimination
of DC shift. 3. Results and discussion

The NDT test site at King Abdulaziz City for Science and Tech-
2.3. Sonic echo (SE) method nology was used for the experimental study of non-destructive
geophysical methods. For down-hole seismic testing, the site fea-
SE, one of the earliest approaches to use reflected stress waves tures a poly (vinyl chloride) inclined cased borehole built in accor-
to practically estimate the depths of foundations, identifies stress dance with ASTM requirements (D 4428/D 4428 M) (Figs. 5 and 6).
wave parameters, namely wave velocity, and reflection duration. Two concrete foundations with effective depths of 5 and 7 m were
The impact hammer’s strike on the top of the foundation generates poured to finish the site. A crack volume of 25  25  5 cm, repre-
compressional waves (Fig. 3), which travel the length of the foun- senting 30% of the total volume of the foundation, was prepared at
dation and reflect back from any discontinuity. Such discontinu- a depth of 4.5 m within the foundation desgined deeper with 7m
ities may represent the bottom of the foundation or locations depth.
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M. Almalki Journal of King Saud University – Science 35 (2023) 102916

Fig. 6. Schematic plan for the tested structures at the test site.

Fig. 7. Time-depth profile for Parallel Seismic PS test acquired for a pre-designed foundation with 5 and 7 m depth. (a) The intersection point associated with the foundation
depth is illustrated at 5.0 m depth. (b) The intersection point associated with the foundation depth is illustrated at 6.6 m depth. Each trace represents the wavefield acquired
from different borehole depths.

A field test is conducted to determine the viability of the PS The features of the wave field received from the bottom of the
approach by verifying the depth of the shallower of the two foun- foundation and the embedded fracture were analyzed using the
dations. Seismographic data from a 5-m-deep PS test are displayed US method. Fig. 2 depicts the foundation from the accessible side,
in Fig. 7. A 3C geophone shown in Fig. 6 is installed in a borehole while Fig. 8 displays a multi-channel recording of the downward
with uniform geophone spacing of 0.5 m from ground level to a and upward wave fields.
depth of 8 m below ground level. The foundation depth was inter- A 3C accelerometer was utilized to collect the information
preted using the straight-line fitting methods previously discussed. along a 15-cm vertical profile. Signals from the vertical compo-
The fitting approach predicted velocities of 2551 and 1097 m/s and nent are shown in Fig. 7, with each trace representing a unique
a foundation depth of 5.02 m, which closely matched the actual foundation measurement. The reflections from the bottom of the
depth of the foundation. foundation and the embedded fracture, traveling at 3447 and

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M. Almalki Journal of King Saud University – Science 35 (2023) 102916

Fig. 8. Ultra-Seismic profile was acquired using the vertical component of the 3C accelerometer. The data were recorded over ten positions along an exposed foundation
surface at regular accelerometer spacing of 10 cm. (a) The cross-section of two straight lines of direct and reflected waves (green lines) indicates the foundation depth at
7.1 m. (b) The reflections associated with the foundation fracture were observed at a depth of 4.5 m. (c) Two straight lines of direct and reflected waves (green lines) indicate
the foundation depth at 5.2 m.

Fig. 9. The sonic echo data from the reinforced foundation with; a) field data acquisition, (b) the acquisition parameters, (c)and is data with a nominal depth of 5 m, and (d)
data with a nominal depth of 7 m.

2668 m/s, respectively, were able to be distinguished and iden- up-going waves (reflections from the foundation bottom and
tified as coming from different locations due to the different the embedded fracture) yielded predicted depths of 7.1 m for
amount of time it took for each reflection to arrive. Straight- the 7-m-deep foundation and 4.6 m for the fracture zone at an
line fitting methods for down-going waves (direct arrivals) and actual depth of 4.5 m.

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M. Almalki Journal of King Saud University – Science 35 (2023) 102916

Fig. 10. The sonic echo data from the fracture at a depth of 4.4 m, where it is detected at 4.44 m depth.

Predicting reflections from embedded imperfections is difficult Acknowledgments

without the US approach’s precise measurement. This research
shows that the quality of the data collected depends heavily on This work was supported by the King Abdulaziz City for Science
how securely the accelerometer is coupled to the test surface. and Technology (KACST). The author thanks Dr Khaled Almutairi
Therefore, grease was used to attach the accelerometer to the base- and Hashem Almalki from KACST for their assesstance during test
ment wall, providing a flat surface for testing and ensuring proper site preparation, and Dr Larry Olson from Olson Engineering Co., for
coupling. his support during data acquisition.
Next, SE tests were performed on the tops of two foundations
with depths of 5 and 7 m to determine their true depths (Figs. 9
and 10). The data, processed using a low-pass filter to remove Appendix A. Supplementary data
the higher frequencies, yielded predicted foundation depths of
5.07 and 7.01 m deep, respectively, based on Eq. (1). These pre- Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
dicted depths agree strongly with the true depths. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2023.102916.

4. Conclusions References

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