APPLIED CHEMISTRY- Blood chemistry
Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers
necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and
transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. In
vertebrates, it is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma.
Blood is made mostly of plasma, but 3 main types of blood
cells circulate with the plasma:
Platelets help the blood to clot. Clotting stops the blood from flowing
out of the body when a vein or artery is broken. ...
Red blood cells carry oxygen. ...
White blood cells ward off infection.
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
Red blood cells (Erythrocytes)
RBCs are the biconcave cells and without nucleus in humans; also
known as erythrocytes. RBCs contain the iron-rich protein called
haemoglobin; give blood its red colour. RBCs are the most copious
blood cell produced in bone marrows. Their main function is to transport
oxygen from and to various tissues and organs.
Red Blood Cells are red due to Hemoglobin, which is a transport
molecule and also a pigment. As a result, blood is red.
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
White blood cells (Leucocytes)
Leucocytes are the colour less blood cells. They are colour less because
it is devoid of haemoglobin. They are further classified as granulocytes
and a granulocytes. WBCs mainly contribute to immunity and defence
mechanism.
Types of White Blood Cells
There are five different types of White blood cells and are classified
mainly based on the presence and absence of granules.
Granulocytes
Agranulocytes
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
Blood composition
Components Of Blood
There are many cellular structures in the composition of blood. When a
sample of blood is spun in a centrifuge machine, they separate into the
following constituents: Plasma, buffy coat and erythrocytes.
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
Plasma
The liquid state of blood can be contributed to plasma as it makes
up ~55% of blood.
It is pale yellow in colour and when separated, it consists of salts,
nutrients, water and enzymes. Blood plasma also contains important
proteins and other components necessary for overall health.
Hence, blood plasma transfusions are given to patients with liver
failure and life-threatening injuries.
Red Blood Cells (RBC)
Red blood cells consist of Haemoglobin, a protein. They are produced
by the bone marrow to primarily carry oxygen to the body and carbon
dioxide away from it.
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
White Blood Cells (WBC)
White blood cells are responsible for fighting foreign pathogens (such
as bacteria, viruses, fungi) that enter our body.
They circulate throughout our body and originate from the bone
marrow.
Platelets
Tiny disc-shaped cells that help regulate blood flow when any part of
the body is damaged, thereby aiding in fast recovery through clotting of
blood.
The above-stated elements form the composition of blood in humans.
The only vertebrate without haemoglobin is the crocodile icefish. It
derives its oxygen requirement directly from the cold, oxygen-rich
water where it lives.
Applied chemistry-blood grouping & matching
Principle: The ABO and Rh blood grouping system is based on
agglutination reaction. When red blood cells carrying one or both the
antigens are exposed to the corresponding antibodies they interact with
each other to form visible agglutination or clumping.
one of the classes (such as those designated A, B, AB, or O) into which
individuals or their blood can be separated on the basis of the presence or
absence of specific antigens in the blood.
Based on the presence and absence
of antibodies and inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red
blood cells (RBCs).
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
These antigens may be proteins, carbohydrates, glyco proteins, or glyco
lipids, depending on the blood group system.
Some of these antigens are also present on the surface of other types
of cells of various tissues.
Several of these red blood cell surface antigens can stem from
one allele (or an alternative version of a gene) and collectively form a
blood group system.
The two most important blood group systems are ABO and Rh; they
determine someone's blood type (A, B, AB, and O, with +, − or null
denoting RhD status) for suitability in blood transfusion.
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
Blood type (or blood group) is determined, in part, by the ABO blood
group antigens present on red blood cells.
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
ABO blood group system
The ABO blood group system involves two antigens and two antibodies
found in human blood. The two antigens are antigen A and antigen B.
The two antibodies are antibody A and antibody B. The antigens are
present on the red blood cells and the antibodies in the serum.
Regarding the antigen property of the blood all human beings can be
classified into 4 groups, those with antigen A (group A), those with
antigen B (group B), those with both antigen A and B (group AB) and
those with neither antigen (group O).
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
ABO blood group system: diagram showing the carbohydrate chains that
determine the ABO blood group
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
Rh blood group system
The Rh system (Rh meaning Rhesus) is the second most significant
blood-group system in human-blood transfusion with currently 50
antigens.
The most significant Rh antigen is the D antigen, because it is the most
likely to provoke an immune system response of the five main Rh
antigens.
It is common for D-negative individuals not to have any anti-D IgG or
IgM antibodies, because anti-D antibodies are not usually produced by
sensitization against environmental substances.
Rh negative blood types are much less common in Asian populations (0.3%)
than they are in European populations (15%).The presence or absence of the
Rh(D) antigen is signified by the + or − sign, so that, for example, the A− group
is ABO type A and does not have the Rh (D) antigen.
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
Rhesus (Rh) factor is an inherited protein found on the surface of red
blood cells. If your blood has the protein, you're Rh positive. ... Rh
positive is the most common blood type. Having an Rh negative blood
type is not an illness and usually does not affect your health. However, it
can affect your pregnancy.
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
Physiological functions of plasma proteins
Plasma proteins, such as albumin and globulin, that help maintain the
colloidal osmotic pressure at about 25 mmHg. Electrolytes like sodium,
potassium, bicarbonate, chloride, and calcium help maintain blood pH.
Immunoglobulins help fight infection and various other small amounts of
enzymes, hormones, and vitamins.
▪Albumins regulate the osmotic pressure of the blood (and hence
moderate the osmotic pressure of body fluids)
▪Globulins participate in the immune system (i.e. immunoglobulins) and
also act as transport proteins
▪Fibrinogens are involved in the clotting process (soluble fibrinogen can
form an insoluble fibrin clot)
▪Low levels of other plasma proteins have various functions (e.g. α-1-
antitrypsin neutralises digestive trypsin)
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•One of plasma’s main functions is the removal of waste from cellular
functions that help to produce energy. Plasma accepts and transports this
waste to other areas of the body, such as the kidneys or liver, for
excretion.
•Plasma also helps maintain body temperature by absorbing and
releasing heat as needed.
•In addition to transporting waste and regulating body temperature,
plasma has several other key functions that are carried out by its different
components:
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
•Proteins
•Plasma contains two key proteins called albumin and fibrinogen.
Albumin is vital for maintaining a balance of fluid, called oncotic
pressure, in the blood.
•This pressure is what keeps fluid from leaking into areas of the body
and skin where less fluid usually collects. For example, people with low
albumin levels may have swelling in their hands, feet, and abdomen.
•Fibrinogen helps to reduce active bleeding, making it an important part
of the blood-clotting process. If a person loses a lot blood, they’ll also
lose plasma and fibrinogen. This makes it harder for blood to clot, which
can lead to significant blood loss.
•Immunoglobulins
•Plasma contains gamma globulins, a type of immunoglobulin.
Immunoglobulins help the body fight off infections.
Mechanism of blood clotting
The mechanism of coagulation involves activation, adhesion, and
aggregation of platelets along with deposition and maturation of fibrin.
Blood Coagulation is the process of forming a clot or thrombus in order
to prevent excess loss of blood from the body. It is a gel-like mass which
is formed by the platelets and fibrin in the blood.
Process of Blood Coagulation
The mechanism which helps the body in order to prevent from constant
loss of blood is known as hemostasis. The entire process is divided here
into three major steps:
The primary hemostasis involves the process of vasoconstriction,
which response to the injury of the body in the vascular wall. Once
injured, the vascular walls react immediately by reducing the amount of
blood flow in the infected area.
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Coagulation Cascade
The process by which blood clots are formed involves a complex set of
reactions collectively called the coagulation cascade.
This cascade is stimulated by clotting factors released from damaged
cells (extrinsic pathway) and platelets (intrinsic pathway)
The coagulation cascade involves many intermediary steps, however the
principal events are as follows:
Clotting factors cause platelets to become sticky and adhere to the
damaged region to form a solid plug.
These factors also initiate localised vasoconstriction to reduce blood flow
through the damaged region
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
Additionally, clotting factors trigger the conversion of the inactive
zymogen prothrombin into the activated enzyme thrombin.
Thrombin in turn catalyses the conversion of the soluble plasma
protein fibrinogen into an insolube fibrous form called fibrin
The fibrin strands form a mesh of fibres around the platelet plug and
traps blood cells to form a temporary clot.
When the damaged region is completely repaired, an enzyme (plasmin)
is activated to dissolve the clot.
APPLIED CHEMISTRY-BLOOD PRESURE
What is blood pressure?
Blood pressure is the force of your blood pushing against the walls of
your arteries.
Each time your heart beats, it pumps blood into the arteries. Your blood
pressure is highest when your heart beats, pumping the blood.
This is called systolic pressure. When your heart is at rest, between
beats, your blood pressure falls. This is called diastolic pressure.
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
Systolic Blood Diastolic Blood
Blood Pressure Category
Pressure Pressure
Normal Less than 120 and Less than 80
High Blood Pressure (no other heart risk
140 or higher or 90 or higher
factors)
High Blood Pressure (with other heart risk
130 or higher or 80 or higher
factors, according to some providers)
Dangerously high blood pressure - seek
180 or higher and 120 or higher
medical care right away
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
What causes high blood pressure?
Common factors that can lead to high blood pressure include: A diet high
in salt, fat , and/or cholesterol .
Chronic conditions such as kidney and hormone problems, diabetes, and
high cholesterol.
Family history, especially if your parents or other close relatives have
high blood pressure.
Five factors influence blood pressure:
•Cardiac output.
•Peripheral vascular resistance.
•Volume of circulating blood.
•Viscosity of blood.
•Elasticity of vessels walls.
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
Here are 10 lifestyle changes you can make to lower your blood
pressure and keep it down.
1.Lose extra pounds and watch your waistline. ...
2.Exercise regularly. ...
3.Eat a healthy diet. ...
4.Reduce sodium in your diet. ...
5.Limit the amount of alcohol you drink. ...
6.Quit smoking. ...
7.Cut back on caffeine. ...
8.Reduce your stress.
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
Anaemia – Symptoms, causes and treatment
Anemia is defined as a low number of red blood cells. In a routine blood
test, anemia is reported as a low hemoglobin or hematocrit.
This most common type of anemia is caused by a shortage of iron in
your body. Your bone marrow needs iron to make hemoglobin. Without
adequate iron, your body can't produce enough hemoglobin for red blood
cells.
Anemia has three main causes: blood loss, lack of red blood cell
production, and high rates of red blood cell destruction. Anemia can
make you feel tired, cold, dizzy, and irritable.
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
Anemia Symptoms
The signs of anemia can be so mild that you might not even notice them.
At a certain point, as your blood cells decrease, symptoms often develop.
Depending on the cause of the anemia, symptoms may include:
•Dizziness, lightheadness, or feeling like you are about to pass out
•Fast or unusual heartbeat
•Headache
•Pain, including in your bones, chest, belly, and joints
•Problems with growth, for children and teens
•Shortness of breath
•Skin that’s pale or yellow
•Cold hands and feet
•Tiredness or weakness
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
Anemia Treatment
Your treatment will depend on your type of anemia. There are lot of
causes, so there are also many treatments available.
•If you have aplastic anemia, you might need medication, blood
transfusions (in which you get blood from another person), or a bone
marrow transplant (in which you get a donor’s stem cells).
•If you have hemolytic anemia, you might need medication that will
hold back your immune system. Your primary care doctor may refer you
to a doctor who specializes in vascular problems.
•If it’s caused by blood loss, you might have surgery to find and fix the
bleeding. If you have iron-deficiency anemia, you’ll probably need to
take iron supplements and change your diet.
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
•Sickle cell anemia treatment includes painkillers, folic
acid supplements, intermittent antibiotics or oxygen therapy. A drug.
called hydroxyurea (Droxia, Hydrea, Siklos) is often prescribed to
decrease sickle cell pain crises (complicated mechanism).
•If you have a vitamin B12 or folate deficiency, you will be prescribed
supplements..
•Thalassemia doesn’t usually need treatment, but if your case is severe,
you might have blood transfusions, a bone marrow transplant, or surgery.
APPLIED CHEMISTRY-Blood Urea Determination
Urease method
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
Blood protein Determination – Biuret method.
Proteins are the complex compound formed by thousands of amino
acids. Amino acids are amphoteric electrolytes having carboxyl and
amino groups that act like acid and base. It has one positive charge and
one negative charge, hence these ions are electrically neutral and do not
migrate in the electric field. The two amino acids are linked together with
the help of a bond called peptide bond and it yields dipeptide.
Biuret is a compound formed by heating urea at 1800 which results in the
condensation of 2 molecules of urea. The peptide bonds in Biuret give a
positive result for the test hence the reagent is named so. It is considered
as a general test for compounds (proteins and peptides) having two or
more peptide (CO-NH) bonds.
The Biuret reagent is a solution composed of sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
or potassium hydroxide (KOH), hydrated copper (II) sulfate,
and potassium sodium tartrate. Sodium hydroxide and
Potassium hydroxide provide the alkaline medium and potassium sodium
tartrate is added to chelate and thus stabilize the cupric ions in the
solution or to maintain their solubility in alkaline solution.
Biuret Test Procedure
•Take 3 clean and dry test tubes.
•Add 1-2 ml of the test solution, egg albumin, and deionized water in the
respective test tubes.
•Add 1-2 ml of Biuret reagent to all the test tubes.
•Shake well and allow the mixtures to stand for 5 minutes.
•Observe for any color change.
Observation Interpretation
Proteins are absent (negative biuret
No color change, i.e., the solution remains blue
test)
Proteins are present (positive biuret
The solution turns from blue to deep purple
test)
Physiological functions of Adrenalin
Adrenaline, also known as epinephrine,
is a hormone and medication
Key actions of adrenaline include increasing
❖ the heart rate,
❖ increasing blood pressure,
❖ expanding the air passages of the lungs,
❖ enlarging the pupil in the eye
❖ redistributing blood to the muscles
❖ altering the body's metabolism,
❖ to maximise blood glucose levels (primarily for the brain).
Strong emotions such as
fear or anger cause epinephrine to be released into the bloodstream,
which causes
➢ an increase in heart rate,
➢ muscle strength,
➢ blood pressure,
➢ sugar metabolism.
This reaction, known as the “Flight or Fight Response” prepares the
body for strenuous activity.
Physiological functions of Thyroxin
The thyroid gland is an important part
of the endocrine system, secreting a number
of hormones that affect everything from
heart health to metabolism. One of those
hormones is thyroxine, also known as T4.
Because of the many functions that thyroxine impacts, it is considered
one of the most important thyroid hormones. Understanding thyroxine
is crucial to protecting your overall health.
Thyroxine is a hormone the thyroid gland secretes into the bloodstream.
Once in the bloodstream, thyroxine travels to the organs, like the liver
and kidneys, where it is converted to its active form of triiodothyronine.
Thyroxine plays a crucial role in heart and digestive function,
metabolism, brain development, bone health, and muscle control. It
affects almost all of the body's systems, which means proper thyroxine
levels are vital for health.
The thyroid hormones act on nearly every cell in the body.
It acts to increase the basal metabolic rate, affect protein synthesis, help
regulate long bone growth (synergy with growth hormone) and neural
maturation, and increase the body's sensitivity to catecholamines (such
as adrenaline) by permissiveness.
These hormones also regulate protein, fat, and carbohydrate metabolism,
affecting how human cells use energetic compounds.
They also stimulate vitamin metabolism. Numerous physiological and
pathological stimuli influence thyroid hormone synthesis.
Insulin function
Insulin is a peptide hormone secreted by the β cells of the pancreatic
islets of Langerhans and maintains normal blood glucose levels by
facilitating cellular glucose uptake, regulating carbohydrate, lipid
and protein metabolism and promoting cell division and growth
through its mitogenic effects.
Insulin helps control blood glucose levels by signaling the liver and
muscle and fat cells to take in glucose from the blood.
Insulin therefore helps cells to take in glucose to be used for energy. If
the body has sufficient energy, insulin signals the liver to take up
glucose and store it as glycogen.
Physiological functions of sex hormones
Hormones help regulate many bodily processes, such as
appetite, sleep, and growth.
Sex hormones are those that play an essential role in sexual
development and reproduction.
The main glands that produce sex hormones are the adrenal
glands and the gonads, which include the ovaries in females
and testes in males.
The sex hormones are responsible for the fundamental change in growth
& development and stimulate the developments of secondary
sexual characters.
The testes and the ovaries are the reproductive organs and both are
stimulated by the pituitary gland during (teen)Puberty. That is why they
are called sex hormones.
The primary male and female hormones are called the androgen and the
estrogen.
Males can produce these hormones in the testes, while women produce
them in the ovaries. Although males and females possess both of these
types of hormones, they possess them in significantly different amounts.
Estrogen
Estradiol (E2), also spelled oestradiol, is an estrogen steroid hormone and
the major female sex hormone.
It is involved in the regulation of the estrous and menstrual female
reproductive cycles.
Estradiol is responsible for the development of female secondary sexual
characteristics such as the breasts, widening of the hips, and a female-
associated pattern of fat distribution and is important in the development
and maintenance of female reproductive tissues such as the mammary
glands, uterus, and vagina during puberty, adulthood, and pregnancy.
Physiological function
1. Sexual development:
The development of secondary sex characteristics in women is driven
by estrogens, to be specific, estradiol
estradiol produces breast development, and is responsible for changes
in the body shape, affecting bones, joints, and fat deposition.
2. Reproduction
estradiol acts as a growth hormone for tissue of the reproductive organs,
supporting the lining of the vagina, the cervical glands, the
endometrium, and the lining of the fallopian tubes. It enhances growth
of the myometrium. Estradiol appears necessary to maintain oocytes in
the ovary.
3. Skeletal system
Estradiol has a profound effect on bone. Individuals without it (or other
estrogens) will become tall and eunuchoid, as epiphyseal closure is
4.Skin health
The skin also becomes more dry during menopause, which is due to
reduced skin hydration and surface lipids (sebum production).
Along with chronological aging and photoaging, estrogen deficiency in
menopause is one of the three main factors that predominantly
influences skin aging.
5. Nervous system
Estrogens can be produced in the brain from steroid precursors. As
antioxidants, they have been found to have neuroprotective function.
Estrogen is considered to play a significant role in women's mental
health, with links suggested between the hormone level, mood and well-
being. Sudden drops or fluctuations in, or long periods of sustained low
levels of estrogen may be correlated with significant mood-lowering.
Androgens
Androgens are the group of sex hormones that give men their 'male'
characteristics (collectively called virilisation). The major sex hormone
in men is testosterone, which is produced mainly in the testes.
he predominant and most active androgen is testosterone, which is
produced by the male testes. The other androgens, which support the
functions of testosterone, are produced mainly by the adrenal cortex—
the outer portion of the adrenal glands—and only in relatively small
quantities.
