MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

MATH 111

The Nature of Mathematics

• Mathematics is the abstract science of number, quantity, space, structure, and patterns.
• It is both a theoretical and practical discipline that allows humans to understand the world
logically and analytically.
• It is used not only in solving theoretical problems but also in day-to-day life, science, business,
engineering, social sciences, and even the arts.

Mathematics as a Language

• Mathematics is a universal language:

➢ It uses symbols and notations (e.g., ∑, √, π, ∞) instead of words.
➢ These symbols convey meaning with precision and remove ambiguity.
➢ Mathematical language is context-free—it has rules (syntax) and meaning (semantics) just
like any spoken language.
➢ Example: The expression 2x+3=72x + 3 = 7 communicates a clear instruction: solve for xx
such that the equation holds true.

Mathematics as a Science of Patterns

• Mathematics is deeply connected to recognizing and understanding patterns:

➢ Patterns exist in nature (spirals in shells, branches in trees), music (rhythm, harmony),
economics (trends in data), and human behavior.
➢ Studying these patterns leads to the development of formulas, functions, and models.
➢ Example: The Fibonacci sequence (0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13...) appears in leaf arrangements,
pinecones, and flower petals.

Mathematical Language and Symbols

1. Symbols and Notations

➢ Operations: + (addition), − (subtraction), × or · (multiplication), ÷ or / (division)

➢ Relations: = (equal), ≠ (not equal), > (greater than), < (less than)

➢ Set notations: ∈ (is an element of), ⊂ (subset), ∪ (union), ∩ (intersection)

• These symbols allow complex ideas to be expressed succinctly.

2. Mathematical Expressions

➢ Algebraic expressions are composed of constants, variables, and operations (e.g., 5x+35x + 3).

➢ An equation asserts that two expressions are equal (e.g., 2x−1=32x - 1 = 3).

➢ An inequality shows a non-equal relationship (e.g., x>4x > 4).

• Expressions can model real-world relationships, such as speed, area, or growth rate.

Problem Solving and Reasoning

1. Polya’s Four-Step Process

• Polya’s method offers a systematic approach to solving problems:

 1. Understand the problem – Identify what is being asked, known values, and unknowns.

2. Devise a plan – Choose a strategy (e.g., use algebra, draw a diagram, guess and check).

3. Carry out the plan – Apply the chosen strategy carefully.

4. Review – Check your work and ask if your solution makes sense.

2. Types of Reasoning

• Inductive Reasoning: Drawing general conclusions from specific examples.

➢ Example: After observing that the sun rises every morning, you assume it will rise
tomorrow.

• Deductive Reasoning: Applying general principles to reach a specific conclusion.

➢ Example: All humans are mortal. Socrates is human. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

3. Problem-Solving Strategies

• Trial and error

• Working backward

• Making a table or chart

• Using patterns

• Logical reasoning

Sets and Logic

1. Sets

• A set is a collection of distinct elements (numbers, objects, symbols).

• Notation: A = {1,2,3}

• Set Types:

➢ Finite: Has a countable number of elements.

➢ Infinite: Unlimited (e.g., set of all integers).

➢ Empty set: ∅\empty set, no elements.

➢ Universal set: All elements under consideration.

2. Set Operations

• Union (A ∪ B): All elements in A or B or both.

• Intersection (A ∩ B): Elements common to both sets.

• Difference (A − B): Elements in A not in B.

• Complement (A′): Elements not in A but in the universal set.

3. Logic and Statements

• A statement is a declarative sentence with a truth value.

• Logical Connectives:

➢ AND ( ∧ ) – both must be true.

➢ OR ( ∨ ) – at least one must be true.

 ➢ NOT (¬) – negation.

➢ IF-THEN ( → ) – conditional logic.

• Truth Tables: Used to determine the outcome of compound logical statements.

• Quantifiers:

➢ Universal (∀): "For all"

➢ Existential (∃): "There exists"

Geometry and Measurement

1. Euclidean Geometry

• Based on postulates by Euclid.

• Deals with flat surfaces and includes:

➢ Points, lines, angles, shapes

• Common shapes: triangles, squares, circles

• Theorems: Pythagorean Theorem a^2 + b^2 = c^2, properties of angles, congruence, and
similarity.

2. Non-Euclidean Geometry

• Spherical Geometry: Geometry on curved surfaces (e.g., Earth).

➢ Triangle angles add up to more than 180°.

• Hyperbolic Geometry: Deals with saddle-shaped surfaces.

3. Measurement

• Perimeter: Distance around a shape (e.g., P = 4s for a square)

• Area: Space inside a shape (e.g., A = πr^2 for a circle)

• Volume: Space occupied by 3D objects (e.g., V = lwh for a box)

Patterns, Symmetry, and Fractals

1. Patterns

• A pattern is a repeated or predictable sequence.

• Arithmetic Sequence: Constant difference.

➢ Formula: an=a+(n−1)d

• Geometric Sequence: Constant ratio.

➢ Formula: a^n=a • r^n-1

2. Symmetry

• Reflective: Mirror image (butterfly wings).

• Rotational: Object looks the same after rotation (windmill).

• Translational: Repetition of a pattern by shifting (tiles).

3. Fractals
 • Fractals are infinitely complex patterns that are self-similar across different scales.

• Examples:

➢ Mandelbrot Set

➢ Natural examples: Romanesco broccoli, snowflakes, lightning

Functions and Graphs

1. Functions

• A function assigns exactly one output to each input.

• Notation: f(x) = x^2 + 2

• Domain: Possible input values

• Range: Resulting output values

2. Types of Functions

• Linear: y = mx + b

• Quadratic: y = ax^2 + bx + c

• Exponential: y = a^x

• Logarithmic: y = logᵇx

3. Graphs

• Drawn on a Cartesian plane

• Slope: Steepness of the line m=rise/run = m=y2-y1/x2-x1

• Intercepts: Points where graph crosses axes

Financial Mathematics

1. Simple Interest

• Interest calculated on the original principal.

• I=Prt

➢ P = principal, r = rate (decimal), t = time in years

2. Compound Interest

• Interest on principal and accumulated interest.

• A = P(1 + r/n)ⁿᵗ

➢ A = amount, n = number of compounding periods

3. Annuities

• Future value of regular deposits:

• FV=R(1+i)ⁿ −1/i

• Present value: How much to invest now for a desired future amount.

4. Loans and Amortization

 • Loan payments involve interest.

• Uses amortization formulas to break payments into interest and principal over time.

Mathematics in Society

1. Applications in Real Life

• Voting: Majority, plurality, ranked-choice

• Transportation: Route optimization using graph theory

• Cryptography: Secure communication using modular arithmetic

• Scheduling: Gantt charts, critical path analysis

• Weather: Mathematical models simulate weather patterns

2. Graph Theory

• Graphs: Made up of vertices (nodes) and edges (connections)

• Euler Paths/Circuits: Paths that use every edge once

• Applications: maps, social networks, electrical circuits

3. Statistics

• Descriptive statistics: Mean, median, mode, standard deviation

• Probability: The likelihood an event will occur

➢ P(E)=number of favorable outcomes/total number of possible outcomes

Common Symbols:

Symbol Meaning Example

+ Addition 5+3=8

- Subtraction 9-2=7

× or * Multiplication 4×2=8

÷ or / Division 10 ÷ 2 = 5

∈ “is an element of” 3 ⊂ {1,2,3}

⊂ “is a subset of” {1,2} ⊂ {1,2,3}

∅ Empty set A=∅

Set Operations:

Operation Symbol Example

Union ∪ A ∪ B = elements in A or B

Intersection ∩ A ∩ B = elements in both

Operation Symbol Example

Difference − A − B = elements in A not in B

Complement A′ Not in set A

Graphs and Functions

Types of Graphs:

• Bar graph – comparison of categories

• Pie chart – percentage of a whole

• Line graph – changes over time

Functions:

• A function relates an input to an output.

Notation: f(x) = y

Example:

f(x) = 2x + 3 → f(2) = 2(2) + 3 = 7