THE HUMAN EYE AND THE COLOURFUL WORLD

The Human Eye: The human eye is one of the most valuable and sensitive sense organs.
It enables us to see the beautiful, colourful world around us. The eye is spherical in
shape and has a diameter of 2.3 cm on average. The size of eye remains same
throughout our whole life. It is one of the vital optical instrument.

The main parts of the human eye are: cornea, iris, pupil, ciliary muscles, eye lens, retina
and optic nerves.

1)Sclera:- The sclera is the white, fibrous tissue that covers most of the outside of the
eyeball:

Function:- The sclera protects and supports the eye, and helps prevent stray light from
entering.

2) Cornea:- The transparent spherical membrane covering the front of the eye is known
as cornea. Also known as the window or aperture of the eye.

Function:- light coming from objects enters into eye through Cornea. The outer surface
of Is bulging out (convex in shape). Most of the refraction of light rays entering the eye
occurs at the outer surface of the cornea.

(ii) Iris: The coloured diaphragm between the cornea and the lens is iris. The iris is
situated just behind the cornea.

Function:-It controls the size of the pupil.

(iii) Pupil: The middle point of the iris has a hole, which is called pupil. The pupil appears
black because no light is reflected from it.
Function:- The pupil regulates and controls the amount of light entering the eye. The
pupil becomes small when bright light falls on the eye. However, it becomes wide when
there is dim light.

(iv) Eye lens: The eye lens is a transparent crystalline lens (convex in nature i.e. image is
real and inverted ), compared of fibrous jelly like material which is held in position by
ciliary muscles. The focal length of eye lens can be changed by changing its shape by
the action of ciliary muscles.

Function:- it focuses the images of objects on the retina of the eye.

v)Ciliary muscles:- These muscles hold the eye lens in position.

Function :- Ciliary muscles control the focal length of the eye lens. And hold lens ,adjust
the image so eye will remains to have same size.

vi) Retina:- The screen on which the image is formed by the lens system of human eye is
called retina. It is a delicate membrane having enormous number of light sensitive
cells called rods and cones which are sensitive to light. These cells convert light energy
into nerve impulses or electrical signals.

Function:- The retina sends these impulses or electrical signals to the brain via the optic
nerves and gives rise to the sensation of vision. In this process of signal transmission
from optic nerve to brain the inverted image is re-inverted to give us our usual
impression of an erect image.

(A) Rods: Respond to the intensity of light. Enables us to see in dim light, cannot
distinguish between various colours.

(B) Cones: Respond to colour by generating electrical pulses. The light sensitive cells
get activated upon illumination and generate electrical signals, which are sent to the
brain via the optic nerves. The brain interprets these signals and finally processes the
information so that we perceive objects as they are.

vii)Optic nerves:- Optic nerve is formed by the nerve fibres coming from the retina.

Function :-It carries nerve impulses or signals to the brain and the brain finally interprets
the signals.

viii)Blind spot:- : It is a spot on the retina near optical nerve which is insensitive to light.
The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye.

• Aqueous humour:- Aqueous humour is a salty fluid that fills the space between
the cornea and the eye lens.
• Function:- The aqueous humour keeps eye inflated and provides nourishment.
 • Vitreous humour is a jelly-like fluid that fills the space between the retina and
the eye lens.

• Function:- It Provides support and protection to the retina and lens.

**POWER OF ACCOMMODATION:- The ability of the eye lens to focus (or to see) both
far or near objects by adjusting its focal length is called the power accommodation of
the eye.

The eye lens curvature can be modified(i e relax/contract) to some extent by the ciliary
muscles. The change in curvature of the eye lens can thus change its focal length.

Relaxation of ciliary muscles – cause eye lens becomes thin –that increases its focal
length (2.5 cm).hence it enables us to see distant objects clearly.

Contraction of ciliary muscles – causes eye lens becomes thick so– focal length
decreases –so it enables us to see near objects clearly.

TERMS:--‐

*** The Least Distance of Distinct Vision: The minimum distance at which objects can
be seen most distinctly without strain. Also called the near point of the eye. For young
adults with normal vision.

1) Near point of the eye:-The closest distance at which the eye can focus clearly is
called the near point ./The point at the closet distance, at which an object can be
seen clearly by the eye, is called near point of the eye. Young adults with normal
vision, it is about 25 cm. D=25 cm
2) Far Point: The farthest distance at which an object can be seen clearly is called
far point. /
The most distant point at which an object can be seen clearly is called far point
of the human eye. For a normal eye, the far point lies at infinity.
3) Range of Vision: The distance between the near point and the far point is called
the range of vision. For a normal eye, the range of vision is from 25 cm to infinity
4) Able to see colour ful objects due to presence of cone shaped cells of retina
which responds to colours .
5) Colour Blindness: The defect of the eye due to which a person is unable to
distinguish between certain colours, is known as colour blindness. The colour
blind persons do not possess cone cells that respond to certain colours. Colour
blindness is a genetic disorder which occur by inheritance. It has not been cured
so far.
** person may only have rod cell of retina.
6)Persistence of Vision: The impression or sensation of the image remains on the
retina for about 1/16th of a second. It is called persistence of vision. In
 cinematography the principle of persistence of vision is used. In
cinematography, the standard frame rate of 24 frames(i.e. images) per second.

***DEFECTS OF VISION AND THEIR CORRECTION:-

Sometimes, the eye may gradually lose its power of accommodation. In such
conditions, the person cannot see the objects distinctly and comfortably. The
vision becomes blurred due to the refractive defects of the eye.
1) Myopia/ short sightedness:-A person with myopia can see nearby objects
clearly but cannot see distant objects distinctly or clearly. A person with this
defect has the far point nearer than infinity. Such a person may see clearly up to
a distance of a few metres. In a myopic eye, the image of a distant object is
formed in front of the retina and not at the retina itself.
Reason:-i)excessive curvature of the eye lens, (ii) elongation of the eyeball.
iii)This defect is due to the high con- verging power of the eye lens, which is
created by the insufficient relaxation of the ciliary muscles. As a result the im-
age of distant object is formed in front of the retina.
Correction:- This defect can be corrected by using a concave lens of suitable
power will bring the image back on to the retina and thus the defect is corrected.

2) Hypermetropia or far sightedness:- A person with hypermetropia can see

distant objects clearly but cannot see nearby objects distinctly or clearly. The
near point, for the person, is farther away from the normal near point (25 cm).
Such a person has to keep a reading material much beyond 25 cm from the eye
for comfortable reading.
Reason:- i) This is because the light rays from a close by object are focussed at a
point behind the retina as This defect arises either because (1) the focal length of
 the eye lens is too long, or (ii) the eyeball has become too small. Iii)This defect is
caused due to the low converging power of the eye lens, which is mainly due to

weakening of the ciliary muscles, resulting in the reduction of the ability of the
ciliary muscles.
Correction This defect can be corrected by using a convex lens of appropriate
power. T Eye-glasses with converging lenses provide the additional focussing
power required for forming the image on the retina.

3) Presbyopia:-A human eye cannot see far as well as near objects clearly due to
ageing.( having both defects myopia and hypermetropia)
Reason:-the power of accommodation of eye usually decrease.( ciliary muscles
become weak).and diminishing flexibility of the eye lens.
Correction:-such people require bi-focal lenses.

** bi-focal lenses consists of both

Upper portion as concave lens
Lower portion as convex lens.

4) Cataract;- The crystalline lens of people at old age becomes milky and cloudy,(
The crystalline lens of some old people becomes hazy or even opaque du
development of a membrane over it.)it can even lead to partial or complete loss
 of vision this condition is called cataract. This vision can be restored through a
cataract surgery .

5) Astigmatism happens when cornea or lens has a different shape than normal.
Astigmatism occurs when either the front surface of the eye (cornea) or the lens inside
the eye has mismatched curves. Instead of having one curve like a round ball, the
surface is egg-shaped. This causes blurred vision at all distances.

It is corrected by using eyeglasses with cylindrical lenses.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH A PRISM:-A triangular glass prism has two

triangular bases and three rectangular lateral surfaces. These surfaces are
inclined to each other. The angle between its two lateral faces is called the angle
of prism.
The plane surface through which light passes is called the refracting surface and
the angle between two refracting surfaces is the angle of prism, whereas the line
of intersection of the two surfaces is called the refracting edge of the prism. The
section of the prism perpendicular to the refracting edge is called the principal
section of the prism.

Deviation of light in prism: Incident ray enters the prism, gets refracted, it bends
towards the normal and when it moves out of the prism, it now bends away from the
normal and forms emergent ray. The peculiar shape of the prism makes the emergent
ray bend at an angle to the direction of the incident ray. This angle formed is called angle
of deviation.

Angle of deviation:-The angle of deviation is the angle between the incident ray and the
emergent ray of light that passes through a prism:

The angle of deviation is represented by the symbol δ. It depends on several factors,

including

a)The angle of incidence,

b)The refractive index of the prism material,

c)The wavelength of light,

d)The angle of the prism.

The angle of deviation varies as the angle of incidence changes:

a) As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of deviation decreases.

At a certain angle of incidence, the angle of deviation reaches a minimum value.

b)At the minimum angle of deviation, the angle of incidence equals the angle of
emergence.

**If the angle of incidence continues to increase, the angle of deviation also increases.

DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT BY A GLASS PRISM:-

In the year 1665, Newton discovered by his experiment with glass prism that white light
(like sunlight) consists of a mixture of seven colours( V-Violet, I -indigo , B-Blue G-green,
Y-yellow-orange-red).Every colour has its own characteristics Wavelength and refractive
index.
When white light is passed through a glass prism, it splits into its seven constituent
colours to form a band of seven colours. This phenomenon is called dispersion of white
light

PRISM COMBINATION:-

Isaac Newton was the first to use a glass prism where a white light when pass through a
prism it split white light into band of seven colours( i.e. a spectrum is formed ) further by
using another similar prism is placed in an inverted position with respect to the first
prism, these colour components fall on second prism, it recombines to form white light
again. This implied that white light consists of seven colours.

CAUSES OF DISPERSION:- The speed of light or colour depends upon the wavelength. If
wavelength of a colour is large, the speed of the colour is also large. Thus each colour of
light travels with different speed in a given medium. **The angle of deviation is inversely
proportional to the wavelength of light, meaning that as the wavelength of light
increases, the angle of deviation decreases.

**Violet light deviates the most, while red light deviates the least when passing through
a prism:

Violet light:- Has the shortest wavelength and deviates the most because it travels more
slowly through a medium( speed is less)

Red light ;-Has the longest wavelength and deviates the least because it travels faster
through a medium.(speed is more)
Spectrum:- The band of seven colours obtained due to splitting
of light is called spectrum. The red colour light bends the least
and the violet colour light bends the maximum.
Formation of Rainbow:- A rainbow is a natural spectrum
appearing in the sky after a rain shower . It is caused by dispersion
of sunlight by tiny water droplets, present in the atmosphere. A
rainbow is always formed in a direction opposite to that of the
Sun. The water droplets act like small prisms. They refract and
disperse the incident sunlight, then reflect it internally, and finally
refract it again when it comes out of the raindrop.
You can also see a rainbow on a sunny day when you look at the
sky through a waterfall or through a water fountain, with the Sun
behind you.

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10.4:- Atmospheric refraction:-
Defines:-
Refraction:-the bending of light as it passes from one transparent
substance into another
the change in direction of a ray of light passing from one medium
to another caused by its change in speed.
Atmospheric refraction:- Atmospheric refraction is the bending of
light as they pass through the Earth's atmosphere. It occurs
because the atmosphere is made up of layers with different
optical densities, which are caused by varying air densities at
different heights.
TWINKLING OF STARS: The twinkling of a star is due to
atmospheric refraction of starlight.
The starlight, on entering the earth’s atmosphere, undergoes
refraction continuously before it reaches the earth.
The atmospheric refraction occurs in a medium of gradually
changing refractive index. Since the atmosphere bends starlight
towards the normal, the apparent position of the star is slightly
different from its Actual position. The star appears slightly higher
(above) than its actual position when viewed near the horizon
Further, this apparent position of the star is not stationary, but
keeps on changing slightly, since the Physical conditions of the
earth’s atmosphere are not stationary.
Since the stars are very distant, they approximate point-sized
sources of light. As the path of rays of Light coming from the star
goes on varying slightly, the apparent position of the star
fluctuates and the amount Of starlight entering the eye flickers –
the star sometimes appears brighter, and at some other time,
fainter,
Which is the twinkling effect.
Planets do not twinkle. Reason: The planets are much closer to
the earth, and are extended sources. If we Consider a planet as a
collection of a large number of point-sized sources of light, the
total variation in the amount of light entering our eye from all the
individual point-sized sources will average out to zero, thereby
Nullifying the twinkling effect.

Advance Sun rise and delayed sunset: The Sun is visible to us

about 2 minutes before the actual sunrise, and about 2 minutes
after the actual sunset because of atmospheric refraction. The
time difference between actual Sunset and the apparent sunset is
about 2 minutes.
Reason for the apparent flattening of the Sun’s disc at sunrise and
sunset: is also due to the atmospheric Refraction.
Rising and setting of sun appears visible even if below the
horizon. The rising and setting sun becomes visible even if it is
below the horizon due to refraction of light from layers of air near
the earth’s surface and the length of day is increased by nearly 4
minutes due to this phenomenon.
SCATTERING OF LIGHT
. Tyndall Effect: The phenomenon of scattering of light by the
colloidal particles gives rise to Tyndall effect
E.g.: 1. . This phenomenon is seen when a fine beam of sunlight
enters a smoke-filled room through a small hole. Thus, scattering
of light makes the particles visible.

Eg:2. Tyndall effect can be observed when sunlight passes

through a canopy of a dense forest. Here, Tiny water droplets in
the mist scatter light.
Colour of Scattered light: The colour of the scattered light
depends on the size of the scattering Particles. Very fine particles
scatter mainly blue light while particles of larger size scatter light
of longer Wavelengths. If the size of the scattering particles is
large enough, then, the scattered light may even appear White.
Scattering in air: The earth’s atmosphere is a heterogeneous
mixture of minute particles. These particles Include smoke, tiny
water droplets, suspended particles of dust and molecules of air.
When a beam of light Strikes such fine particles, the path of the
beam becomes visible. The light reaches us, after being reflected
Diffusely by these particles.
Sky appears blue: The molecules of air and other fine particles in
the atmosphere have smaller.. These are More effective in
scattering light of shorter wavelengths at the blue end than light
of longer wavelengths at The red end. The red light has a
wavelength about 1.8 times greater than blue light. Thus, when
sunlight passes Through the atmosphere, the fine particles in air
scatter the blue colour (shorter wavelengths) more strongly Than
red. The scattered blue light enters our eyes.
Sky appears dark for astronauts: Reason: If the earth had no
atmosphere, there would not have been any Scattering. Then, the
sky would have looked dark. The sky appears dark to passengers
flying at very high Altitudes, as scattering is not prominent at such
heights.
Danger’ signal lights are red in colour. Reason: The red is least
scattered by fog or smoke. Therefore, It can be seen in the same
colour at a distance.

At noon sky appears white, where as we see reddish appearance

of the sun at the sunrise or Sunset: Reason:
During sunset and sunrise, light from the Sun near the horizon
passes through thicker layers of air And larger distance in the
earth’s atmosphere before reaching our eyes
At noon, light from the Sun overhead would travel relatively
shorter distance. The Sun appears White because only a little of
the blue and violet colours are scattered.
During morning and evening near the horizon, most of the blue
light and shorter wavelengths are Scattered away by the particles.
Therefore, the light that reaches our eyes is of longer wavelengths.
This gives Rise to the reddish appearance of the Sun. (Diagram
**Colloidal:-
Very finely divided substance which is scattered throughout
another substance e.g.:- paint