Lecture Notes Digital Design and Computer Organization

Lecture Notes

Module 1
Introduction

An electronic circuit is composed of individual electronic components such as resistors, diodes, capacitors,
transistors etc. An electronic circuit can usually be categorized as an analog circuits and digital circuits.
Analog electronics is an electronics system where signal change continuously. Analog signal is a signal
whose amplitude can take any value between given limits. An analog circuit operates on continuous signals.

Digital electronics is a field of electronics involving the study of digital signals and the engineering of
devices that use or produce them. Digital signal is a signal whose amplitude can have only given discrete
values between defined limits. A signal that changes amplitude in discrete steps. A digital circuit operates on
discrete signals. Digital signals are represented using binary value 0’s and 1’s.

There are two types of digital circuits 1. Combinational logic circuits 2. Sequential logic circuits

Clock is a periodic, rectangular waveform used as a basic timing signal. Duty cycle for a periodic digital
signal, the ratio of high-level time to the period or the ratio of low-level time to the period. A table that shows
all of the input output possibilities of a logic circuit is called truth table.

Figure 1: clock Signal

A digital circuit having one or more input signals but only one output signal is called a gate. Logic circuit is a
digital circuit, a switching circuit, or any kind of two-state circuit. The most basic gates are -the NOT gate
(inverter), the OR gate and the AND gate.

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NOT gate:
A gate with only one input and a
complemented output.

OR gate:
A gate with two or more inputs. The
output is high when any input is high

AND gate:
A gate with 2 or more inputs. The output
is high only when all inputs are high

Realize following Boolean functions using basic gate

i) Y=AB+CD ii) Y= (A+B)(C+D)

Universal Logic Gates

Any logic function/ logic circuit can be implemented using only one kind of gate then such gates are called
universal logic gates. NOR gate and NAND gate are called universal logic gates

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NOR Gate
A gate with two or more inputs. The output is low when any input is high.

NOR gate: A gate

with two or more
inputs. The output is
low when any input is
high

Universality of NOR gate

NOT from NOR OR from NOR AND from NOR

NAND gate:
A gate with two or
more inputs. The
output is low when
all input is high.

Universality of NAND gate

NOT from NAND AND from NAND OR from NAND

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Exclusive-OR gate:
A gate with two or more inputs and
output of is HIGH only when the
number of HIGH inputs is odd.

Equivalence/exclusive-NOR gate
A gate with two or more inputs and
output of is HIGH only when the
number of HIGH inputs is even.

Realize Y = AB + C using only NOR and NAND type of gate

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Active-low refers to the concept in which a signal must be low to cause something to happen or to indicate
that something has happened. Assert means to activate. If an input line has a bubble on it, you assert the input
by making it low. If there is no bubble, you assert the input by making it high.

Laws of Boolean Algebra

Absorption law: a + a'b = a + b

a (a'+b) = ab

Minimum Forms of Switching Functions

In a positive logic system, binary 0 stands for low voltage and binary 1 for high voltage. In a negative logic
system, binary 0 stands for high voltage and binary 1 for low voltage. Assert means to activate. If an input
line has a bubble on it, you assert the input by making it low. If there is no bubble, you assert the input by
making it high. Active-low refers to the concept in which a signal must be low to cause something to happen
or activate the circuit. Active-high refers to the concept in which a signal must be high to cause something to
happen or to activate the circuit.
Combinational Circuits are circuits made up of different types of logic gates. The output of the
combinational circuit depends on the values at the input at any given time. The circuits do not make use of any
memory or storage device. A literal is a variable or its complement.
In digital logic, the inputs and output of a function are in the form of binary numbers or Boolean values i.e., 0
and 1. Digital logic is known as Boolean logic. These inputs and outputs can be termed as Boolean
variables.The output Boolean variable of a digital signal can be expressed in terms of input Boolean variables

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which forms the Boolean expressions.
Boolean expressions are classified as sum-of-products (SOP) and product-of-sum (POS) form.
In SOP, Boolean expression is written either as a single product term or as a sum of product terms. A product
term consists of either a literal, which is single uncomplemented or complimented boolean variable, or
product of literals. Product term is also called as minterms and represented using ‘m’.
Ex: bˈ + abc + aˈcˈ
In POS, Boolean expression is written either as a single product term or as a sum of sum terms. A sum term
consists of either a literal, which is single uncomplemented or complimented Boolean variable, or sum of
literals. Sum term is also called as maxterms and represented using ‘M’.
Ex: c(a+b)(bˈ+dˈ)

Example: Minterms and Maxterms for Three Variables

The minterm expression can be written by collecting all terms for which function evaluates to 1 i.e., high
output.

Steps to get SOP

1. Locate each output 1 in truth table.
2. Write the respective minterm

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Apply OR operation to the minterms

Steps to get POS:

1) Locate each output 0 in truth table
2) Write the respective maxterm
3) Apply AND operation to the maxterms.

Example:

Conversion between SOP and POS:

1) Identifying complementary locations,
2) Changing mintenn to maxtenn or reverse, and finally
3) Changing summation by product or reverse

Example: Y = F(A, B, C) = Π M(O, 3,

6)
= Σm(l, 2, 4, 5, 7)
Example: Y = F(A, B, C) = Σm(3, 5,
6, 7)
= ΠM(O, 1, 2, 4)

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The various Boolean expression simplification techniques are
1) Algebraic techniques
2) Karnaugh Map/K-Map Method
3) Quine McCluskey Method
4) Entered Variable Map/ MEV/EMV Method

An Incompletely specified function is a Boolean function that only define output values for a subset of its
inputs - i.e., a Boolean function whose output is a don't care for at least one of its input combinations. The Xs
in the truth table indicate that we don’t care whether the value of 0 or 1 is assigned to F.
Example: Truth Table with Don’t-Cares.

In SOP we use m to denote the required minterms and d to denote the don’t-care minterms. F
(A, B, C) = Σ m(0, 3, 7) + Σ d(1, 6)
In POS we use M to denote the required maxterms and D to denote the don’t-care maxterms. F
(A, B, C) = Π M (2, 4, 5) · Π D(1, 6)

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Write minterm and maxterm expansions for the following truth table.

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Minimum Forms of Switching Functions

A minimum sum of products expression for a function is defined as a sum of product terms which
(i) has a minimum number of terms and
(ii) of all those expressions which have the same minimum number of terms, has a minimum number of
literals.
The minimum sum of products corresponds directly to a minimum two-level gate circuit which
(i) has a minimum number of gates and
(ii) a minimum number of gate inputs.

The minimum sum of products is not necessarily unique; that is, a given function may have two different
minimum sums of products forms, each with the same number of terms and the same number of literals.
Given a minterm expansion, the minimum sum-of products form can often be obtained by the following
procedure:
(i) Combine terms by using XY'+ XY =(Y′+Y) =X. Do this repeatedly to eliminate as many literals as
possible. A given term may be used more than once because X+X=X.
(ii) Eliminate redundant terms by using the theorems of Boolean Algebra.

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A minimum product of sums expression for a function is defined as a product of sum terms which
(i) has a minimum number of terms, and
(ii) of all those expressions which have the same number of terms, has a minimum number of literals.
Unlike the maxterm expansion, the minimum product of sums form of a function is not necessarily unique.
Given a maxterm expansion, the minimum product of sums can often be obtained by a procedure similar to
that used in the minimum sum of products case, except that the theorem (X+Y′)(X+Y)= X is used to combine
terms.

Simplification of Boolean function reduces the gate count required to implement the circuit, the circuit
works faster and circuit require less power consumption.
Switching/Boolean functions can generally be simplified by using the algebraic techniques. The
disadvantages of algebraic procedure usage are
(i) The procedures are difficult to apply in a systematic way,
(ii) It is difficult to tell when we have arrived at a minimum solution.

Karnaugh map/K map is a method simplifying and manipulating switching functions. K map method is
faster and easier to apply than other simplification methods.

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Two and Three Variable Karnaugh Maps
Karnaugh map of a function specifies the value of the function for every combination of values of the
independent variables.
Two Variable K-map
The number of cells in 2 variable K-map is four (22), since the number of variables is two. The
following figure shows 2 variable K-map and location of minterms on a 2 variable K-map.

Example: Convert following truth table into K map. Y = F(A, B) = Σ m (2, 3)

Three Variable K-Map

The number of cells in 3 variable K-map is eight (23), since the number of variables is 3. The following
figure shows 3 variable K-map and location of minterms on a 3 variable K-map.

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OR

Example: Convert following truth table into K

map Y = F(A, B, C) = Σ m (2,6,7)

Four-Variable Karnaugh Maps

The number of cells in 4 variable K-map is sixteen (24), since the number of variables is 4. The
following figure shows 4 variable K-map and location of minterms on a 4 variable K-map.

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Example: Convert following truth table into K

map. Y = F(A, B, C, D) = Σ m(1,6,7)

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Pairs, Quads, and Octets

Two adjacent 1s in the K-map is called a pair and it eliminate the variable that changes form.
Sample of pair

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A quad is a group of four ls that are horizontally or vertically adjacent and a quad eliminates two variables
and their complements

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An octet is a group of 8 ls that are horizontally or vertically adjacent and an octet eliminates three variables and
their complements

Overlapping of groups: We are allowed to use the same 1 more than once.

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Rolling of Map:
Groups may wrap around the table. The leftmost cell in a row may be grouped with the rightmost cell
and the top cell in a column may be grouped with the bottom cell. Roll and overlap to get largest group.

Eliminating redundant group:

A group of 1s or 0s whose all members are overlapped by other groups is called redundant group. After
encircling all possible group, eliminate any redundant group if any. We don’t consider this group while
writing the simplified equations from the K-map

Determination of Minimum Expressions using Essential Prime Implicants

Any single 1 or any group of 1’s which can be combined together on a map of the function F represents a
product term which is called an implicant of F. Several implicants of F may be possible. A product term
implicant is called a prime implicant if it cannot be combined with another term to eliminate a variable.

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The following procedure can then be used to obtain a minimum sum of products from a Karnaugh map.
1) Choose a minterm (a 1) which has not yet been covered.
2) Find all 1’s and X’s adjacent to that minterm. (Check the n adjacent squares on an n-variable map.)
3) If a single term covers the minterm and all of the adjacent 1’s and X’s, then that term is an
essential prime implicant, so select that term. (don’t-care terms are treated like 1’s in steps 2 and 3
but not in step 1.)
4) Repeat steps 1, 2, and 3 until all essential prime implicants have been chosen.
5) Find a minimum set of prime implicants which cover the remaining 1’s on the map. (If there is
more than one such set, choose a set with a minimum number of literals.)

The following figure shows the flowchart for determining a minimum sum of products using a
Karnaugh map with an example

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Solve S(A,B,C)=Σm(1,3,5) using K map and implement using basic gates.

Solve S= F(A,B,C)=Σ m(0, 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12, 14) using Kmap and implement using basic gates, nand
only and nor only.

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Solve S=F(A,B,C,D)=Σ m(0,1, 2, 4, 5,6, 8,9,10,12,13) using Kmap and implement using basic gates,
nand only and nor only.

Solve S = F(A,B,C,D)=Σm(7,9,10,11,12,13,14,15) using K map to get minimum SOP expression.

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Solve F(A,B,C,D)=Σm(1,2,3,6,8,9,10,12,13,14) using K map to get minimum SOP expression.

Solve S = F(A,B,C,D)=Σm(7)+d(10,11,12,13,14,15) using K map to get minimum SOP expression.

Solve S =F(A,B,C,D)=Σm(2,3,5,7,10,12)+d(11,15) using K map to get minimum SOP expression

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Solve S=F(A,B,C,D)=Σm(6,7,9,10,13)+d(1,4,5,11) using K map to get minimum SOP expression.

Solve S= F(A,B,C,D)=Σm(0,1,2,4,5,12,14)+d(8,10) using K map to get minimum SOP expression.

Solve S= F(A,B,C,D)=Σm(0,1,4,8,9,10)+d(2,11) using K map to get minimum SOP expression.

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Solve S=F(A,B,C,D)=ΠM(0,1,3,4,7) using K map to get minimum POS Expression.

Solve S=F(A,B,C,D)=ΠM(0,6,7,8,12,13,14,15) using K map to get minimum POS expression and

implement using basic gates, nand only and nor only gates.

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Solve F(A,B,C,D)=ΠM(0,3,4,7,810,12,14).ΠD(2,6) using K map to get minimum POS

expression and implement uisng basic gates, nand only and nor only gates.

Solve S=F(A,B,C,D)=Σm(6,7,9,10,13)+ Σd(1,4,5,11) using K map to get minimum POS

expression. S= F(A,B,C,D)=ΠM(0,2,3,8,12,14,15).ΠD(1,4,5,11)

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Limitations of K map:
Complexity of K-map simplification process increases with the increase in the number of variables K map is
manual technique and simplification process heavily depends on the human ability.

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