Assignment : 01
Department : Biotechnology
Topic Name : Origin of life on
earth
Submitted by : Palwasha Sahar
RollNo: 01
Submitted to : Dr. Naveed Khan
The Origin of Life on Earth
I. Introduction
Definition and Significance of the Origin of Life
Origin of life is the natural process by which life arose out
of non-living compounds on Earth about 3.5 to 4 billion
years ago. The formation of simple organic molecules,
their aggregation into complex molecules, and finally the
evolution of self-replicating systems marked the
transition.
Understanding the origin of life is important
because:
It is responsible for elucidating the origin of life and how
life evolved on our planet. It gives insights into the
potentiality of life existing elsewhere in the universe
(astrobiology). It reconciles chemistry and biology to
explain how non-living matter can evolve into living
organisms.
Challenges in Studying the Origin of Life
1. Absence of Direct Evidence: The early
geological record of Earth has been distorted by plate
tectonics, erosion, and volcanism, preserving few
remnants of prebiotic chemistry.
2. Uncertainty of Prebiotic Chemistry: The very
conditions and process that created life are not yet well
known.
3. Challenge to Reproduce Early Earth
Conditions: Experiments in the lab (e.g., Miller-Urey)
reproduce only parts of early Earth.
4. Multiple Competing Hypotheses: No one
theory accounts for all the steps from molecules to cells.
II. Early Earth Conditions
Atmosphere, Temperature, and Water
Atmosphere: The ancient atmosphere was anoxic (free
oxygen was absent) and was probably made up of
methane (CH₄), ammonia (NH₃), carbon dioxide (CO₂),
water vapor (H₂O), and hydrogen (H₂).
Temperature: First incredibly hot because of constant
asteroid impacts and volcanic action, but gradually
cooled down so that liquid water could settle. Presence
of Water: Oceans developed around 4.4 billion years ago,
creating a medium for chemical reactions.
Role of Volcanic Activity and Meteorite
Impacts
Volcanic Activity: Emitted gases (e.g., CO₂, H₂S) and
minerals, enriching the primordial atmosphere and
hydrothermal systems where life could have begun.
Meteorite Impacts:
Brought organic molecules (e.g., amino acids discovered
in meteorites such as Murchison).
Potentially introduced water to the Earth.
- Induced harsh conditions that might have inhibited and
also favored the emergence of life.
III. Abiogenesis Theories
1. Primordial Soup Hypothesis
Proposed by: Alexander Oparin (1924) and J.B.S.
Haldane (1929).
Life originated in a “soup” of organic molecules within the
early oceans of Earth, fueled by lightning, UV rays, or
volcanic heat. Miller-Urey Experiment (1953):
Replicated early Earth conditions, yielding amino acids
and nucleotides.
Limitations:
Lack of certainty regarding the precise constitution of the
early atmosphere. Inability to explain how simple
molecules came together to form complex polymers (e.g.,
proteins, RNA).
2. RNA World Hypothesis
RNA was the initial self-replicating molecule and could
store genetic information as well as catalyze
reactions(ribozymes).
Supporting Evidence:
Ribozymes: RNA that is capable of serving as enzymes
(e.g., peptidyl transferase of the ribosome).
RNA’s Role: In protein synthesis, still core (mRNA, tRNA,
rRNA).
Challenges:
RNA is not stable under early Earth conditions.
- How did RNA evolve without pre-
existing enzymes?
3. Alternative Hypotheses
Hydrothermal Vent Hypothesis:
Origin of life may have been in the vicinity of alkaline
hydrothermal vents, whose mineral waters supplied
energy (chemiosmosis) and shielded microenvironments.
Based on the finding of extremophiles (organisms that
survive in extreme conditions).
Panspermia:
Proposes life’s building blocks (or even microbes) came
on comets or meteorites. Does not account for the origin
of life, just how it could have expanded.
IV. Evolution of Early Life
From Simple Molecules to Prokaryotic Cells
1. Organic Molecules → Polymers: Amino acids and
nucleotides came together to form proteins and nucleic
acids.
2. Protocells: Lipid membranes contained self-
replicating molecules that created simple cell-like forms .
Photosynthesis and the Great Oxidation Event
(GOE)
Evolution of Photosynthesis: Cyanobacteria evolved
oxygenic photosynthesis, producing O₂ as a waste
product (~3 billion years ago).
Great Oxidation Event (~2.4 billion years ago):
Oxygen built up in the atmosphere, allowing for aerobic
respiration. Caused mass extinction of anaerobic
organisms but allowed complex life (eukaryotes) to
evolve.
V. Evidence and Ongoing Research
Types of Evidence
1. Fossil Evidence:
- Stromatolites(layered microbial mats) from 3.5 billion
years ago. Microfossils of ancient bacteria.
2. Isotopic Analysis:
Carbon-12 enrichment of ancient rocks indicates
biological processes.
3. Comparative Genomics:
Experiments with universal genes (e.g., in ribosomes)
to follow the trail of early life.
Current Research and Debates
Synthetic Biology: Attempts to construct artificial life in
laboratories (e.g., protocells with self-replicating RNA).
Search for Extraterrestrial Life: Examining Mars,
Europa, and Enceladus for evidence of prebiotic
chemistry.
New Theories:
Iron-Sulfur World Theory (life originated on mineral
surfaces).
Metabolism-First Models(reactions based on energy
happened before genetics).
Conclusion
The origin of life is still one of science’s best-kept secrets,
but research in astrobiology, chemistry, and genetics
keeps finding pieces of the puzzle. There is no single
theory that accounts for everything, but together the
primordial soup, RNA world, and hydrothermal vent
hypotheses are a likely framework for the way life might
have started on Earth—and elsewhere in the universe.
