SS1d Module Contemporary World 1

Bsed English (Tarlac State University)

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 DISCLAIMER

This module is intended for STUDENTS OF TARLAC STATE

UNIVERSITY ONLY to address the flexible learning scheme for
A.Y. 2020-2021 as implemented by the Commission on Higher
Education brought by the COVID– 19 pandemic. The textbooks,
articles, websites, and video links used in compiling this module
are properly cited. No reproduction of any part of this module
may be used, sold, or distributed for commercial purposes or be
changed or included in any other business, work or publication,
whether in print or electronic unless prior permission has been
granted. Parts of the module were lifted or adapted from
different sources, then were compiled. All credits and rights are
reserved to the authors or owners. No copyright infringement
intended. This is for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY.

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 Republic of the Philippines
Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
Main Campus Tarlac City
Tel. No. (045) 493-0182; Fax. No. (045) 982-0110

Social Science 1D –

Contemporary World TSU VMGO

VISION Tarlac State University is envisioned to be a

premier university in Asia and the Pacific.

MISSION Tarlac State University commits to promote and

sustain the offering of quality and programs in
higher and advanced education ensuring
equitable access to education for people
empowerment, professional development, and
global competitiveness.

Towards this end, TSU shall:

1. Provide high quality instruction through

qualified, competent, and adequately
trained faculty members and support
staff.
2. Be a premier research institution by
enhancing research undertaking in the
fields of technology and sciences and
strengthening collaborating with local
and international institution.
3. Be a champion in community
development by strengthening
partnership with public and private
organization & individuals
CORE VALUES E - xcellence
Q - uality
U - nity
I - ntegrity
T - rust in God, Transparency and True Commitment
Y - earning for Global Competitiveness

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PREPARED BY THE FOLLOWING FACULTY MEMBERS:

DR. MARIA ELENA D. DAVID Ed.D.

Professor VI

[email protected]
Dr. Maria Elena Dela Cruz-David,
Ed.D. is a graduate of BA Social
Sciences from the University of
the Philippines, a holder of
Master’s Degree in Public
Administration and Doctorate
degree in Educational
Management.
She served as consultant and Team leader for various
government projects such as the verification of the ancestral
domain claim of the Aetas in Bamban and Moriones, Tarlac;
Monitoring and Evaluation Project of the Business Permits &
Licensing System (BPLS) and Local Economic Development and
Competitiveness Index for Cities and Municipalities in the
Philippines of the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI).
Consequently, she had presented and published results of some
of the studies she conducted in various conferences and research
journals here and abroad.
Currently she is a faculty member of the College of Arts and Social
Sciences of Tarlac State University.

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 Assistant Professor LOUELLA PEDROCHE-CAPITULO
[email protected] / [email protected]
https://www.facebook.com/ louella.pedrochecapitulo

Asst. Prof. Louella P. Capitulo has been with Tarlac

State University for 28 years (1993-present),
teaching Social Sciences subjects at the Laboratory
School, CoED (now CTE) and CASS. Prior to this, she
spent eight years (1985- 1993) as a College
Instructor at Central Luzon State University, which
accorded her master’s scholarship (under Fulbright-
FAPE) at the Ateneo de Manila University where she
earned her MA Socio-Anthro units. She earned her
bachelor’s degree (BA Social Sciences) at the
University of the Philippines. She is currently faculty
member of CASS
General Education Department Faculty.

RUBY ROSE P. VINLUAN

Lecturer
[email protected]

Ruby Rose P. Vinluan is a graduate of Bachelor

of Arts in Social Sciences Major in Economics
and Minor in Political Science at University of
the Philippines Baguio in 2015. Currently, she
is taking up Juris Doctor at Tarlac State
University. She is also a Lecturer of General
Education Department (Social Science),
College of Arts and Social Sciences of the
same institution since 2015. She has been
teaching different social science subjects
such as Readings in Philippine History,
Philippine Constitution, Life and Works of
Rizal, Economics
and Taxation, Humanities, Sociology, Contemporary World, Socio-
Anthropology, Ethics, and Gender and Society.
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COURSE DESCRIPTION:
This three-unit course deals with the study of the
Contemporary World. It focuses on the interdisciplinary analysis
of the various aspects of Globalization in order to help students
situate themselves in the global world as Global Citizens imbued
with Ethical Responsibility.

This course traverses the significant topics on Globalization

covering, Global economy, Global governance, Global
development and Sustainable Development Goals and the
emergence of global cities with the end in view of providing a
multi-dimensional analysis of the various problems that
globalization might bring.

COURSE OUTLINE:
Course Content/Subject Matter for Group Present/Discuss
1. Introduction to Globalization – Historical &
Theoretical Approaches – Module Chapters 1-2-3
2. The Global Economic Structure – Module Unit 2
3. Global Governance, Civil Societies and NGOs –
Module
Chapters 5-6
4. Global Development and Divide – Module Chapter 7
5. Global Media Cultures (Westernization and
Americanization) – Module Chapter 8
6. Global Religions – Module Chapter 9
MIDTERM WEEK
7. Demography and Migration – Module Chapters 10-11
8. Urbanization and Global Cities – Module Chapter 12
9. Gender and Sex Discrimination
10. Social Issues and problems of urbanization in a
Global
World (Global Health Issues, Climate Change &
Peace & Terrorism, etc.) – Module Chapter 13

FINALS WEEK

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 RATIONALE
Contemporary World is a 3-unit subject which falls within
the Social Sciences domain. This subject focuses on the
interdisciplinary analysis of the various aspects of Globalization in
order to help students situate themselves in the global world as
Global Citizens imbued with Ethical Responsibility and their social,
economic, and political impacts.
In line with the flexible learning for the academic year
2020-2021, this module provides a wide discussion and
developmental activities of the subject that would give students
new knowledge and help them to think critically especially in the
social, economic, and political context. The discussion was made
easier to comprehend by giving illustrations and examples for
them to have a better understanding of the different concepts of
globalization. The activities given also improve the
comprehension and analytical skills of the students.

INSTRUCTION TO THE USER

The students are required to study and understand the
module to be able to answer the different assessment tasks
provided for each chapter. Video links for subtopics are also
provided in this module.
To the Subject Instructor, he/she is required to give a time
frame for the students to accomplish the prescribed tasks. Check
the OBTL syllabus for guidance.

IMPORTANT NOTICE:
Parts of the module were lifted or adapted from the book –
Introduction to Contemporary World by Felix De Ocampo,
Bernardo Ramos, Rex Llonora, Agnes Macaraeg and Maria Elena
David. All credits and rights are reserved to the authors. No
copyright infringement intended. This is for
EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES

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 UNIT 1
CHAPTER 1
THE CONCEPT OF GLOBALIZATION:

IS GLOBALIZATION A PHENOMENON?

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Understand the meaning of globalization.
2. Define Globalization as a theory and phenomenon.
3. Discuss the characteristics and qualities of
Globalization as a phenomenon.
4. Analyze the different interpretations and concepts globalization.

1.1 Definition of Globalization

In the area of academe, there is no single definition of
globalization. There are various competing interpretations that
emerged vying for dominance and universal recognition. The
inception of the term globalization brought much attention to the
public especially among intellectuals who have interest to delve
to the contending forces of this notion. But what is this term
globalization? Is this a phenomenon? Is globalization a global
trend?
Globalization refers to a multidimensional set of social
processes that create, multiply, stretch, and intensify worldwide
social interdependencies and exchanges while at the same
fostering in people a growing awareness of deepening
connections between the local and the distant (McGrew, 2003).
For Justine Rosenberg’s definition of globalization, he
argues that globalization as a phenomenon gave rise to the
interconnectedness of human society that replaced the
sovereign state system with multilateral system of global
governance. His definition centers on the process, condition,
time, and age of this condition.
From the lens of George Ritzer (2008), he described this
phenomenon as the spread of worldwide practices, relations,
consciousness, and organization of social life. The
interconnectedness of social segments from macro institutions to
the smallest sectors of the world have coincided the fabrics of
globalization.

Globalization, as a theory lies in the works of many 19th and

20th century scholars and intellectuals like Karl Marx,
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MacKinder, and

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Robertson who began to introduce the term “globality”. However, it
was in the 1960’s and 1970’s when this term gained worldwide
attention.
Globalization -- simply put -- is a social process of reshaping
and remaking the world order. Operations of social institutions
transcend across territories and boundaries with the goal of
expanding its reach – economic, political, and technological
fibers. Understanding the term globalization, requires a critical
examination of its origin, development, and usage as part of our
understanding of social change within the spectrum of
contemporary world. Thus, the deployment of new ideas in trans-
planetary setting and the structural emergence of nation- state
project moved communities to be included in a trans-state and
transnational domain.

Figure 1.1 Forces and Drivers of Globalization

Economics
Technology Politics

GLOBALIZATION

Individuals
and Culture
Institutions
Environment

1.2 Qualities and Characteristics of Globalization (Held &

McGrew, 2002)
1. Creation and Multiplication of social networks and cultural
activities which break the traditional norms and practices
in the political, economic, and cultural realms of most
communities.
2. Expansion and Stretching of social operations and
connections which is seen in the financial markets and
trading operations around the globe. (Examples: World
Trade Organization, ASEAN Economic Community, World
Economic Forum and European Union)
3. Intensification and Acceleration of human activities which
describes the process of world and individual connection
works. Consumer markets and consumerism continue
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 to rule in this

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 postmodern era where the farthest have the access to
reach the central portion of global events.
4. Consciousness and Awareness. People, as the primary
actors of globalization are the front liners as reflected in
their experiences. The human consciousness is critical on
how they impact the growing outcomes and markets of
globalization.

1.3 Is Globalization the same as Westernization?

NO. The concept of Westernization is deeply rooted in the
Western World where often associated with the Western culture
and values (Sairin, 2011). This concept is famously used in
referring the western value system and it influences countries
outside its territory and sovereignty. The political, economic, and
technological prowess of United States and European countries
are best described in the idea of Westernization.

Video Link:
Globalization explained ()

REFERENCE:
De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David, M.E.
(2018). Introduction to Contemporary World. St. Andrew Publishing
House.

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 CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL APPROACHES

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Discuss the definition of three leading theories
explaining Globalization.
2. Familiarize the known leading theorists and
standpoint on Globalization.
3. Discuss the origin of the three theories and its relevance to
the study of Globalization.
4. Apply the three theories on the current political,
economic, and technological situations of the world.

We see globalization in the field of international relations

through number of perspectives and explanations. Examining the
causes of events and analyzing the levels of events require
sufficient facts to better explain the narratives of the situation. In
our understanding on the lens and interpretations, it would be
more interesting if we are going to look into the three prominent
theories. The three sociological perspectives that will best explain
globalization are realism, liberalism, and idealism.

2.1 Realism
The realist perspective explaining globalization focuses on
the shifting distribution of power among states (Walt, 1998 and
Synder, 2004). They explained that the core idea of dominating
the world is through the employment of power. This force comes
from different angles, depending on the power availability of a
nation. However, realists warn that countries may suffer, and
struggle to maintain its power it will be overreached and used
wrongly.
Realists argue that countries open their economies to the
world because of two contending reasons:
1. Financial returns of expanding markets offer new economic
opportunities to the capitalist (origin country). (Examples:
McDonald’s, Chevron, Ford, Coca-Cola, Citibank, Microsoft,
and H&M)
2. The continued centrality of political power and military
strength are obvious forces of interdependence and
realistic behavior of the more and most powerful countries.

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 Realists see economic alliance and corporation as medium
of flourishing activities under favorable security conditions.
Economies tend to forge partnership if they see advantages
from other countries. In some cases, political-military alliances
are sometimes used especially within the bipolar world where
economic power is utilized to strengthen military capability.
2.2 Liberalism
Liberalism is a perspective in international relations where
actors and institutions emphasize relationships, and negotiations.
Liberalists observe the importance of interaction and
communication and focus on solving problems and conflicts
affecting them. This idea is very evident in countries where
democratic governance and institutions play major roles in
maintaining national cohesiveness in managing domestic and
international affairs.

Example:
When Chinese government asserted its rights over the contested
West Philippine Sea, Realist China has shown its military strength to its
neighbors through giving signal of its advantageous capability. On the
other hand, Liberalist Philippines utilized soft approaches through
protesting in the International Criminal Court the act of China pertaining
to its aggressiveness over the West Philippine Sea.

Liberalists believe in the avoidance of international conflict

and problems, and negotiations and dialogues are potential
mechanisms in confronting issues among parties.

Three Factors that describe the Transformation of Political-Economic

Structure and Development of Global Interconnectedness:
1. Spread of Democracy and Institutions
Democracy as a frontline of liberalism has been
utilized as a sociopolitical apparatus in challenging
political actors who act beyond their power and control.
The strong participatory presence of citizens in key issues
affecting the interest and welfare of the public could be
used as a reference in balancing the interest of
stakeholders.
Liberalists see that democracies are venues of not
using threat to intimidate and harm other nations. Many
liberals believe in the vital function played by the rule of
law as safeguard of self- respect and social stability.

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 2. Global Economic Ties
Liberalists see economic ties and cooperation such
as market integration and economic alliances as fitting
fixtures of globalization. The core belief of liberalism is that
economic alliance and integrating the domestic economy
into a regional or economic bloc will deliver prosperity and
security. Opening of markets to other countries is
described as an act of country’s commitment to global
consciousness and moral understanding of multistate
interests. (Examples: European Union’s Eurozone and
Association of Southeast Asian Nations Economic
Community (AEC)).
3. International Organizations
Liberals believe that the formation of leading
regional and international organizations like global
commerce and governance are main instruments in the
maintenance of peace and solidarity. (Examples:
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO))

2.3 Idealism
Idealists and constructivist hold the notion that values, and
norms play pivotal roles in sustaining and reforming the process
and works of individuals, group, and nations. This theory
emphasizes on the functions of ideologies, frameworks, systems,
and identities in understanding globalization and international
order. Its core beliefs centers on the centrality of ideas, beliefs,
emotions, and collective values that shape the political and
economic landscapes of the world.
Alexander Wendt and John Gerard Ruggie are the two most
prominent founders of this school of thought. Idealism presents
the changing norms and evolutions of individuals, groups, and
states with the goal of influencing the dynamics and pattern of
social structure.
Furthermore, they value the importance of
“appropriateness” and “transparency” in reshaping and framing
rules affecting the general welfare of its members, may it be
individual or collective. Idealists emphasizes appropriate policies
and decisions during the state of conflict as it advances the moral
aspects and ethical dynamics of actions.

Role of Ideas and Technology in Globalization

Ideas are non-material entities of culture; it embodies one’s
perception of his social world or environment. It defines how
values, norms, and beliefs are used by governments and
institutions in the holding and exercise of power (Nau, 2008).

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 When ideas are used well based on their intended
application, development takes place. It could be utilized for the
linking and transfer of knowledge in a transnational community of
nations, scientific, and social innovation, and increase in the
understanding of people in their day-to- day life. Ideas are
necessary in this particular scene because the definitions and
concepts constructed are used in interpreting how people act and
behave.
Three Important Technological Trends that made Significant Changes
in the Interaction of Nations and People:
1. Knowledge and technology are significant determinants of
wealth and power. The success of an economy of a country
requires pool of resources like ideas and technology. The
technological advancement of a nation is an identity of its
economic power.

2. The fast pace of technological change. From industrialization

to modernization, technology has taken a significant role in
business, government, and individuals. The countless
forms of technological breakthrough change the cycle of
the 21st century. The advent of fourth industrial evolution,
the global community is expected to embrace multiple
technical changes and technological developments.

3. Dispersed knowledge and technology. The increasing trends

in communication revolution make it more possible to
move data and ideas from people to people and country to
country at faster and more convenient way.

Innovation as a product of technological advancement have

rendered national borders irrelevant in international system.
Discoveries and changes in science and technology make
markets around the world a borderless contact, making the global
economic structure more intertwined. Because of global reach,
economies find this trend as a ground of tough competition, with
rivals’ states and institutions who have vast resources of wealth
and power. In addition, resource- poor countries are prone to the
damage of these changes. Technology in this day of
postmodernity can be used to project global power at the same
time intimidates countries that are technologically behind. For
example, African States and countries from part of the global
south have the difficulty to rise and compete with resource-rich
countries.

2.4 Institutions and Globalization

Institutions consist norms, set of activities, and regulate

structures that provide meaning and stability to the social
behavior of a group (Peter, 2012). Norms like the rules,
guidelines, programs, and the
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 types of activities constitute the operation of an institution.
They are understood as structures that are parts of a society.

Meyer and Rowan (1977) describe the formation of

institution as a symbolic manifestation on the needs of society.
The actions and behavior of the group members can change and
alter the movement of community and its people.

A different view explained by Giddens (1979), states that

institutions will not be recognized as institutions if they do not
shape the behavior of individuals. As a set of systems and norms,
institutions convey individuals on how to behave and conform to
the practices of the group as a way of accepting the legitimacy of
the norms and values of the organization.

Global governance is directed by two important

institutions: political and economic institutions. The operation of
the political and economic life of globalization depends on how
plans are implemented and how accountable theses institutions
are in their actions. Liberalists emphasize the importance of
institutions in international order and stability. Domestic and
international institutions have various roles in maintaining growth
and development in both political and economic realms.
International institutions are classified intergovernmental organizations that are
formed by national governments. These are international formal organizations that set
rules and with the purpose of regulating the flow of communication and movement of
resources. Governments engaged in internationalizing their organizations because of
retaining and asserting control over global activities and networks brought by global
changes and transformations.
Example:

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) performs globally and countries around the world
depend on the common rules set by the body. Like IMF, World Trade Organization (WTO)
is an international institution that plays key role in the management of global trade. Its
member-economies are bound to adhere and behave in accordance to its guidelines in
the conduct of international trade.

REFERENCE:

De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David, M.E. (2018).
Introduction to Contemporary World. St. Andrew Publishing House.

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 CHAPTER 3

THE PRACTICE OF GLOBALIZATION

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Identify the waves of Globalization and its historical backdrop.
2. Discuss the developments of Globalization from its
earliest period up to the present.
3. Be familiar with the historical origin and
developments of Globalization.
4. Appreciate how the process of Globalization is affecting
countries and institutions around the world.

The take-off of globalization has made borders and state

business systems decline. The advances in technology,
transportation, finance, and communications resulted to the
increase of uniform, standard, and homogenous practices of
nations. The world is totally an integrated environment composed
of different forms of interrelated drivers of changes and social
developments.

However, globalization as a new social formation, adds

color to the endless debates and criticisms of the current mode
of state interactions. There are identified losers and winners,
some will be pushed as part of the growth while other might be
pulled due to the absence of core ingredients of the
transformation process. The question here, how did globalization
started? How did affect the interrelation of different nations
across the globe.

This chapter presents important topics on the historical

development of globalization as well as dimensions of this
phenomenon. It will also explain how competition works at a
global scale by using the ideas of world orders.

3.1 Globalization in Historical Perspectives

There are key events and developments in the history of

globalization from the time it was initially observed and describe
as a phenomenon up to the current era of advancement and
modernization. The useful checklist training the phases of
globalization was drawn by Holton (1998), Sholte (2001), and
Lawson (2012). The following chain of events is not of definite, but
it provides a clearer view on the cycle of globalization.

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 Table 3.1 Timeline of Events

First Phase Second Phase Third Phase

(Mid 18th Century – (1920s – 1960s) (1960s – Present)

1870s)

Development of Establishment Establishment of global

international of League of communication
networks Nations

Beginning of Global effect of Cold Increasing power and

international fairs War influence of
international financial
institutions

International Rise of Third World Rapid rise of US and

relations through Countries in expansion of western
treaties and international arena investments and
agreements in multinational firms
Europe

Establishment of Increased attention to End of Cold War

International humanitarian works
Committee and development aid
of the Red Cross in
1863

Significant Introduction of global Increase in social

development icons and American movement and global
in communication consumerism civil society
and transportation

Development of Introduction of World

international Wide Web and
competitions continuous influence
of telecommunications

First World War Rise of global attention

to environmental
concern
and snit-globalization
campaign

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3.2 Phases of Globalization

For a better grasp on the historical developments of

globalization, Thomas Friedman described the phases of
globalization into three periods.

Table 3.2 Thomas Friedman’s Phases of Globalization

Globalization 1.0 Globalization 2.0 Globalization 3.0

(1492 – 1800) (1800 – 1950) (1950 – 2000)

Period of Mercantilism End of World War II Period of

Technology and
Internet

Age of Industrialization Age of Pax Britannica Age of Information

(rise of British
Economy)

Inventions: Formation of Market Intensification of

• Steam engine Integration and trade worldwide and
• Printing press Institutionalizations of development of
• Railway system major economic Multinational
activities in global corporations
market

Development of Social New players and

Systems and prominent
Institutions: economic actors:
• Government • China
• Education • ASEAN
• Exchange of • European
goods within Union
the region • Japan
• South Korea

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 3.3 Three Dimensions of Globalization

Anthony Giddens described the globalization as

intensification of worldwide social relations. The global economic
activity is the most obvious face of this phenomenon where
economic activities have immense effect to other global
operations such as governments, education, and technology

Table 3.3 Gidden’s Three Dimensions of Globalization

World Capitalist • Primary force of globalization.

Economy • Capitalist states are the main engines of
global production and distribution of goods
and services.
• Capitalists engage in transnational
operation
maintaining pool of resources such as labor
and capital.
• Multinational corporations are very

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Nation-state • Sovereignty of states has been emphasized as
System a primary part of independence and
autonomy.
• The concept of sovereignty in a globalized
world is
understood as the best form of asserting the
existence and operation of a state in order to
be recognized.
• It has been used as a major political unit in
international relations.
• Nation-states have the right to make their own
collective objectives.

World Military • Strengthening military power is the priority of

the first world countries as well as the
developing and third world countries.
• Budget allotted by governments to defense
and
military surged hundred folds with the aim of
delivering world-class defense operation and
services to its people.
• US maintains the rank as the world’s most
powerful military in terms of military spending
(SIPRI, 2017).
3.4 Three Worlds and World Order

The concept of First World, Second World, and Third World

was a construct of the Cold War era. There were number of
interpretations on the origin of Cold War. First, the conflict was
cause by aggressive behavior and domestic policies of Soviet
Union prompting other countries especially the US to react.
Second, the cold war was a result of the US economic system of
expansionist-capitalism. Third, the war was a consequence of
security response from the two countries on the power vacuum
and threat of central Europe.

Table 3.4 Three Worlds

First World Second World Third World

During Cold War Unites States Soviet Neutral and non-
United Kingdom Union aligned
Japan China Countries
Western Estonia
Europea Lithuania
n Half of Germany
Countrie Vietnam
s North
Korea Cuba
Description Powerful The idea of Countries are
world
economies order is described as
having less
stable associated with developed and
governments, role of political developing
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 robust financial and military economy or
markets, and power during global south.
advanced and Cold War.

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 modern The Most of the
infrastructures, communist countries have
low poverty, countries of experience
and high the Second colonialism from
standard of World are Western World.
living found to be
trapped
between
poverty and
prosperity.

Video Link:
A History of Globalization
()

REFERENCE:

De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David, M.E.
(2018). Introduction to Contemporary World. St. Andrew Publishing
House.

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 UNIT 2

GLOBAL

ECONOMY

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Define international trade and identify the reason why
countries engage in international trade.
2. Examine the various theories and perspective explaining the
practice of international trade.
3. Evaluate the roles and functions of different international
economic organizations.
4. Discuss the factor leading the formation of economic
integration and cooperation.

The global economy is highly interdependent. Global

exchanges of commodities create an opportunity to more
sustainable and equipped economy while pose a risk to the
emerging and less performing country. Top gainers and
developed economies in the world are those that have the
sufficiency of resources to compete with other most powerful
economies. They somehow control and dictate the movement of
global demand, investments, and flow of technologies worldwide.
If such trend and condition will continue to happen and exist, who
shall be blamed by this threatening effect of globalization? Where
will less developed and merging economies be under the
stewardship of the biggest economies in the world?

This chapter discusses the relevance of the economic

system in globalization. It deals on issues concerning the function
of international trade, its benefits, and damages. This also
explains the importance of domestic and foreign policies in
international trade and promotion of global economy. The
chapter will conclude by explaining the roles of international
economic organizations in globalization.

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4.1 Economic Systems

The global economy of most countries is classified into

three categories: market, command, and mixed economies. In
countries where democracy prevails, its economic system is
usually under freedom, choice, and decisions of its citizens. While
countries that are under the control of a single political party and
authority, its system could be under the practice of command
economy.
Table 4. 1 Three Economic Systems

MARKET • Decision making of private Hongkong

ECONOMY individuals
• Economy under the will and interest New
of the individuals. Zealan
• Economic freedom to purchase and d
sell products, services, and
properties. Australia
• This condition is not planned by
a Switzerland
single person or group that has the
ability to manipulate or direct the
economy solely.
• It promotes competition among
business and firms.

COMMAND • A central economic planning body North

ECONOMY handles the entire decision making.
• The quality and quantity of goods Korea
and services produced is based
on the Cuba
decision of the government.
• Production quantity is dictated, Russia
consumer behavior is directed, and
market operation is controlled by a China
single authority.
• Its objective is to mobilize
resources for the common good of
the public and for
the interest of the nation.
• Private individuals have no say in
the economic operation.

MIXED • Market-driven economies Philippines

ECONOMY • Combination of market and
command economies. Unite
• Some sectors are under the d
directions State
of the private individuals while s
other aspects of the economy are
left within the guidance of the United
government. Kingdo
• State can take over the ownership m
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 and operation of a private company
for the France
purpose of maintaining the interest
of the nation.

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4.2 International Trade

Is the process and the system when goods, commodities,

services cross national economy, and boundaries in exchange for
money or goods of another country (Balaam and Veseth, 2008).
Global trade has grown dramatically since the post-cold war
era because of increasing demand of goods and services and
countries. This global norm reflects growing practice of
internationalizing and globalizing local products and services.

Trade Theories

1. Descriptive Theory – it deals with the natural order and the

movement of trade. It describes the pattern of trade under
the idea of laissez faire, a French term which means “leave
alone”. It refers to the notion that individuals are best
economic agents to solve the problems through invisible
hand rather than government policies. It also addresses
the questions which product to trade, how much product to
offer and produce, and which country to trade in the
absence of government restrictions.

2. Prescriptive Theory – it prescribes whether government, an

important economic institution, should interfere and
restrict with the movement of goods and services. This
theory views government to have participation in deciding
which countries to alter the amount, composition, and
direction of goods.

Three Perspectives on International Trade

1. Economic Liberals
David Ricardo’s influential work, Law of Comparative
Advantage explains that free trade efficiency is attainable if
two countries can produce more goods and trade products
separately. The advantage of this theory in international
trade is deriving principle of specialization and division of
labor of Adam Smith (Nau, 2009). Countries have different
resources and talents; they are better in performing in that
economic activity than other economic activities.

Economic liberals explain the importance of free

trade and the role of individual’s preference in choosing
economic activity. It includes making decision, and choices
on comparing the costs of products to be produced and
traded, the availability of the product, and the efficiency of
producing and buying products.

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 2. Mercantilists
Mercantilism is an economic theory that emerged
from about 1500- 1800. This period was the emerging eras
of nation- states and the formation of more central
governments. This system flourished due to the following
reasons:
a. Higher export than import. Governments
imposed restrictions and policies requiring
economy and its market to produce higher
export that products and services purchased
outside the country or import. Countries used
this mechanism to support their trade
objectives and strengthen their colonial rule
and possessions.
b. Export less high valued product and import less
high valued product. It prevented and
monopolized the production and
manufacturing operation of the colonies.
c. Benefits of colonial powers. Mercantilism is
adopted to increase and sustain the colonial
power and its authority to direct and control
the economic activity of the colony.

3. Structuralists
The Modern World System (MWS) theory developed
by Immanuel Wallerstein, explain the contact of economies
between core, semi- peripheral, and peripheral countries in
the world. The core states have the absolute advantage
over the other through unequal exchange and extraction of
raw materials from the periphery and semi-periphery. This
system as part on the structure of the global capitalism,
involves exploitation, and transformation in some ways.

Why Countries Engage in International Trade?

➢ Use of Excess Capacity in Demand. The inadequate domestic

demand pushes business organization to expand their market
base outside the national territory. This is usually done by the
firms and companies that have the resources and capital to
operate in transnational market. Giant brands like Nestle,
Pepsi, McDonald’s, Toyota, and Starbucks are known for
expanding their operations outside their home country.
➢ Cost Reduction and Increase of Profit. A market leader for a particular
good or service may garner a lower production cost by increasing its

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 market in global rather than domestic. This enables a firm to
increase its profit while reducing its operating costs.
➢ Cheaper Supplies. a country imports goods from other countries
because of inexpensive raw materials and supplies used for
production. The availability of buying cheaper materials from
other countries lowers the costs in production which might
result an increase in the profit of businesses.
➢ Addiction to Product Line. Economies usually aim for a variety of
products and services available in market. It offers consumer
to choose and by products that are competitive prices, degree
of importance, and will offer higher satisfaction.
➢ Reduction of Risk. Importing products is seen as an alternative to
countries that are vulnerable to supply shortage. These
countries that have high volume of imported goods are
economies that confront the demand and supply condition of
the local market.
➢ Foreign Policy Tool. The membership of a country to regional market
integration and economic relationships is part of its foreign
policy. Enhancing the economic and political affiliation of a
country is very important in sustaining its international status
in a global market.

4.3 Transnational Corporations

The role of Multinational Corporation (MNCs) in the 21st is

distinct and interesting to investigate. The movement of ideas,
capital, investment, technology, and people are affected by the
operations of MCNs. As the global economy is becoming complex
and competitive, MCNs continue to offer innovations and new
product and services. For several years, the term MCNs was used
to refer to a firm operating in different countries around the world.
Because of the magnitude of global production and networks, the
term transnational corporation (TNC) became the more
acceptable name. This refers to business organizations and firms
that compete in regional or global markets. It operates in
countries and makes investments in research, technology,
facilities, distribution, and production.

TNC can control and monopolize the global market

especially if it has huge pool of resources making it one of the
most powerful economic actors in the world. The number of TNCs
from north and west has business operations in the south where
cheap labor and raw material are available. TNCs are very
powerful economic institutions because of their global influence
in investment and network distribution. Sometimes, TNC is being
compared to states in terms of value and power.

4.4 International Economic Institutions and Market Integration

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 The formation of economic integration is designed to
address and enhance the level of competitiveness of member
economies in trade. Free trade is the primary consideration of
regional economic integrations. Free Trade Area (FTA) is a trading
bloc which involves the reduction of internal tariffs to zero of
member economies while retaining different external tariffs. This
policy aims to promote free flow of goods and services as well as
to increase the volume of trade within the region.

However, there are criticisms on FTAs like the unfair trade

practice. Unfair Trade is the conduct of trade by a business fir or
government that violates and breaks the international trade
agreements that are unjustifiable and discriminatory. Examples
of common trade practices are issues relating to price, labor,
wages, health, and environmental concerns that failed to meet
the regulatory standards of the body.

There are number of regional economic blocs around the

world based on the size and area. For the western part of the
globe, European Union and North America Trade Agreement while
in Asian and Pacific, Association of Southeast Asian Nations
Economic Community and Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation are
leading market integrations in the region.

There are also major economic institutions who are major

players in the operation and management of global trade,
investment, and finance. Currently, the international economy
has World Trade Organization, World Bank, International
Monetary Fund, Asian Development Bank, and the newly formed
Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank

1. World Trade Organization (WTO)

In 1995, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT) of the American government was replaced and
succeeded by WTO with 151 members as of 2008 and
accounts for 90% of the world’s trade. It is based in
Geneva, Switzerland and leads by a director general
selected by consensus among its members.

Primarily, WTO has the following main functions:

a. Implementation of the latest GATT agreements
b. A venue for trade negotiations
c. A dispute settlement body responsible for
resolving trade problems.
d. Review and assess national and international
trade laws and policies.
e. Assist members and developing
economies by providing technical
assistance and training programs.
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2. World Bank
Officially called the International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), or World Bank is
an international agency with 189 member-countries
operating in 130 countries worldwide. Formed by Bretton
Woods agreement in 1944 to finance the reconstruction of
war-torn countries brought by the devastation of World
War II.

World Bank is composed of four associated agencies:

a. International Development Association (IDA).

This agency focuses on poor and third world
economies in the world by providing financial
assistance and load program.
b. International Finance Corporation (IFC).
c. Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA).
d. International Settlement Centre of
Investment Disputes (ISCID).

3. International Monetary Fund (IMF)

IMF was created as the flagship institution of Bretton
Woods agreement with 189-member countries. IMF is
responsible in supervising exchange rate system,
providing loan programs to economies experiencing
balancing payments adjustments, and review domestic
economic policies. Its mandated to ensure the stability of
the international monetary system including exchange
rates and international payments. IMF is keen in monitoring
foreign monetary transactions as it has a direct effect on
country’s financial climate. It reflects on the amount owed
by the country from another country as well as indicates
the economic operation like what it produces, consumes,
and buys with its money.

4. European Union
European Union (EU) is a political economic regional
organization of 28 member-economies in Europe. Founded
in 1985, European Economic Country (EEC) was formed by
six countries: Belgium, Germany, France, Italy,
Luxembourg, and Netherlands. Since then, other European
countries joined the regional bloc making it as Europe’s
most influential and powerful body.
EU is guided by its core values, considered as
integral part in the way of life of its citizens. It believes on
the following value orientation: (1) Human dignity, (2)
freedom, (3) democracy, (4) equality, (5) rule of law, and
(6) human rights.
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 5. Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
The Association of Southeast Asian Nation (ASEAN)
was founded on August 1967 in Bangkok Thailand with
Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand
as its founding fathers. Brunei Darussalam, Vietnam,
Myanmar, and Cambodia joined the organization making
up today the 10 member-countries. The ASEAN Political-
Security Community, ASEAN Economic Community, and
ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community are the three main pillars
of ASEAN.

As stated in the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation

in South East Asia (TAC) of 2976. The ASEAN Community
functions under its six fundamental principles
(ASEAN.org).
a. Mutual respect for the independence,
sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity,
and national identity of all nations;
b. The right of every State to lead its
national existence free from external
interference, subversion or coercion;
c. Non-interference in the internal affairs of one another;
d. Settlement of differences or disputes by
peaceful manner;
e. Renunciation of the threat or use of force; and
f. Effective cooperation among themselves
Video Link:

Better understanding of global trade flows (https://youtu.be/RZKX-0SK41U)

COVID-19: What will happen to global economy? | The Economist ()

REFERENCE:
De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David, M.E.
(2018). Introduction to Contemporary World. St. Andrew Publishing
House.

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 CHAPTER 5

GLOBAL GOVERNANCE

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Define international trade and identify the reason why
countries engage in international trade.
2. Examine the various theories and perspective explaining the
practice of international trade.
3. Evaluate the roles and functions of different international
economic organizations.
4. Discuss the factor leading the formation of economic
integration and cooperation.

llenges like civil wars, hunger and poverty, sexual abuse,

climate change, and poor infrastructures are most common
problems where collective efforts are needed. Governments
usually respond based on the need and the urgency of the
problem affecting their sovereignty and interests. It is
problematic in some respects when institutions and bodies do not
agree and show commitments to theses global problems. These
institutions at the international level are filled with complexities
and difficulties in analyzing their specific power and jurisdiction
over a problem. Their contacts and linkages are very political and
are backed by interests of their nations and citizens.
Political globalization refers to intensification and
increasing level of interrelations among nations in the world.
These structural processes raise the issue of state sovereignty,
the growing implications of intergovernmental organizations, and
the prospects of regional and international governance. (Steger,
2003). These features of globalization confront to the framework
of the nation-state with the emergence of new conceptual views
and grounds.
This chapter presents the political dimension of
globalization as a primary component in studying contemporary
world. This includes examining the nature if global governance
and how these nations and states work in globally competitive
environment. It will answer questions on who are responsible to
issues at the international level? Are national governments
responsible and accountable to the problems arising at a global
scale? Is there such thing as global governance and
governments?

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5.1 Global Governments and Governance
The term global government is a response on the actions of
various stakeholders on finding out pressing global problems like
climate change and issues on peace and security. The world has
no global government and global authority. There are political
and economic bodies operating worldwide but no single
organization possesses a global authority in enforcing and
compelling others to follow.
What the world has is the idea of global governance. This
term refers to domestic institutions and governments on how
large-scale problems and public policy issues are being solved at
a global level. It involves a range of actors including states,
national and regional bodies that have the willingness and
commitment to confront a specific problem (WHO, 2015). It
involves management, authority, cooperation, and mechanisms
that are aimed to attain certain goals. This international process
is bounded by consensus and agreements where members are
expected to perform based on the guidelines and policies.
The downside of global governance is establishing its
sovereignty and accountability to all decision framed and actions
implemented. States may not conform and deviate from the
norms set by international institutions like UN and WTO especially
if it will compromise its economic and political interest. The idea
of establishing collectivist approaches in international arena
remains a challenge to organizations that have the power and
resources. All have well-orchestrated governance practices, but
the concept of “governments” remains very elusive.
Three Existing Gaps and Issues in Global Governance
1. Jurisdiction Gap
The lack of global governance in taking actions to problems
affecting key sectors arises from the absence of authority.
This involves the need to create power and jurisdiction to
governments and international organizations that have the
commitment in confronting issues like unemployment,
human rights, peace, and crimes.

2. Incentive Gap
Global governance is formed with the participation of
countries that have the interest to deal problem affecting
their sovereignty. It is an issue between the rich and poor
countries of the world because of uneven distribution of
authority and control over decisions and policies.

3. Participation Gap

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 Member-states sometimes disagree on issues that are
harmful to their interests. They do not involve in decisions
that are crucial to the economic and political welfare of
their sovereignty.
5.2 Political Systems
The kind of political system used by a country has
implications to the success of its economy and the overall
governance. Political System means the system, or the form of
practice employed by the state. Udayanskar (2012) identified two
dimensions of political system. First, a country emphasizes the
importance of individualism as opposed to collectivism. Second, a
system in which a country is either democratic or totalitarian in its
form of government.
Table 5.1 Individualism vs Collectivism

INDIVIUALISM • it is a political system that values the

significance
of individuals over collective goals.
• freedom of the people is the
primary consideration.
• government values choices and preferences
of its
people at a very personal level.
• it is built in two elements: individual
freedom and expression are important in
the sense that individuals just like state
have sovereignty; and the pursuit of
economic interest among individuals.
COLLECTIVISM • is a philosophy that stresses the importance
of
the collective goals over individual freedom
and interests.
• the state, as the primary economic manager
views collective action as the best strategy in
establishing the welfare and interest of the
nation.
• According Plato, social stratification must be
built
in order for the society and the entire
economy and the government be
managed properly and orderly.

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 Table 5.2 Democracy vs Totalitarianism

DEMOCRACY • Democratic institutions and governance

focus on
the role individuals in political decision
making.
• the practice of direct participation in
modern societies involves representation,
where individuals periodically elect
someone who has the ability to represent
them in the government.
• in a representative democracy, competitive
elections occur where candidates freely
compete
for votes through conduct of fair and honest
election.
• elected officials are accountable for their
actions
in the government and operation of the
state.
• constitutional laws are provided to
safeguard the welfare and interest of the
people.
TOTALITARIANISM • is built on the idea that society and citizens
have
no right and freedom of expression.
• totalitarian countries do not recognize the
conduct of fair and honest election, the
presence of media, and civil liberties.
• decision making of the states is exclusive
only on
a single political party if not a ruler who has
full control in the political, economic, and
social affairs if its government.

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5.3 Political Layers and Geopolitics
States in contemporary world are hungry for power. Power
is the ultimate goal to contain and control other states and
nations that do not enjoy much power are considered as
powerless states in international arena. Realists define power as
capabilities of a country o state like population of its people,
resources, territory, economic, and military strengths (Chomsky,
2006; Nau, 2008).In a typical discourse, power is described as the
ability of a person, group, or institution to affect the behavior of
others against their will.
In international relations, geopolitics is defined as a focus
and concentration of a country's location, environment, and
geography as the basis of its national interests (Nau, 2008).
United States and China have ideal geography because of its vast
land and territory, Israel on the other hand, has struggles when it
comes to defending the territory because it is surrounded by
Islam majority countries. India enjoys its huge territory but have
some challenges when it comes to territorial security and military
relationships with neighboring countries Pakistan and China.
Unilateralism
The economic growth experienced by China and other
emerging economies in the world are dependent on the American
market. On the political angle, American military power is
considered as the most highly valued military force in the world
with billions of dollars annually spent by the government. Its
military presence in some countries in Asia and Pacific, Middle
East and Africa, Europe and South America is a remarkable
manifestation of its control in global defense operation. However,
the global stability of power enjoyed by the Americans can only
be sustained if it will employ the liberal values of freedom,
democracy, and human rights (Balaam, and Veseth, 2008).
Multilateralism
The idea of multilateralism includes three powers in
international system.
1. Bipolar - it happens if there are only two great powers
dominating the distribution of power. The Cold War era is
fitting example of bipolarity, the global power was highly
contested between US and USSR.
2. Tri-polar or tri-polarity - exists if there are only three
states dominating the distribution if global order. United
States, Japan, and Europe were considered as potential
powers during the Second World War. They controlled
some areas under the respective military instruments and
interests. In the area global economic power, Japan,
China, and United States are the most
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 favored nations identified by scholars as the three
leading economic giants of modern time.
3. Multipolar or multi-polarity - is situation when more states
are involved in the distribution of global power. This
geological condition is described as an alignment if the
powerful and emerging powers in the world. The current
situation of the globe could be described as Multipolar
because of state actors joining the prestige of
superpowers. Europe, China, Japan, Russia, United States,
and major alliances are key players in the distribution of
power.

Isolationism
Isolationists believe that major powers and states exclude the use
of force and military in the international system. War and
attacking other nations are unethically acceptable in the
international political economy. It is already enshrined in the
international law. Realist-isolationist stresses that United States
must disengage itself using military force over other military
interests.

5.4 Global Political Institutions United Nations

The United Nations or UN is an international organization
established in 1945 with the League of Nations as its original
body. Currently, the organization has 193-memberr states
performing various capacities and divisions. As the world's most
powerful binding political organization, UN can act on the issues
confronting humanity in the 21st century such as peace and
security, climate change, sustainable development, human
rights, disarmament, terrorism, humanitarian and health
emergencies, gender equality, governance, food production, and
more. UN operates worldwide in providing aids and support
services to global problems in countries where it is needed.

Organs of United Nations

1. General Assembly- this is UNs main deliberative and
decision- making body represented by all its 193
members. The assembly holds general debate from
September - December in its headquarters in New
York. Two thirds of vote are required to decide range of
issues like peace and security, budget, and admission if
new members to the organization.
2. Security Council - it is responsible in the maintenance of
peace and security. it has the power to impose sanctions
or punish members or other bodies for the purpose of
restoring international peace and security.
3. Economic and Social Council - commonly called as
ECOSOC. its main function is to coordinate, review, and
recommend policies relating to economic, social
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 environmental issues. It serves as the main agency of
UN in monitoring and evaluating key results in
sustainable development.
4. International Court of Justice - ICJ is the principal body or
court of UN. Its role includes setting legal disputes
among concerned states and provides opinions on legal
matters. This is the only UN organ that operates outside
United States with headquarters in the Peace Palace,
Netherlands.
5. The Secretariat - it is headed by the UN Secretary -
General who sits as its Chief Administrative Officer at the
appointment of the secretary general is done through
the recommendation of the Security Council for a five-
year term. this organ is responsible for the day-to-day
work and operation of the UN including its peacekeeping
mission and thousands of international staff stationed in
different countries.
6. Trusteeship Council

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NATO was formed initially as a political association, and not
a military alliance. Realists argue that during its proposal in 1949,
the idea of collective security arrangement was the main feature
of NATO. Its purpose was not directed against the threat of Soviet
Union but to strengthen political commitment of governments in
Western Europe. However, liberalists point out the belief that
NATO was established to back up and save the economic and
political problems of Europe from the damages of war. The
economic alliances of Europe's powerful countries transformed
the region as a major hub in industrialization. Its development
transformed NATO as a conventional military alliance and
protected Europe from the threat of Soviet Union.

Video Link:

What is global governance? () The United Nations explained

()
REFERENCE:
De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David, M.E.
(2018). Introduction to Contemporary World. St. Andrew Publishing
House.

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 CHAPTER 6
GLOBAL CIVIL SOCIETY AND NON-GOVERNMENTAL
ORGANIZATION

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Define civil society and non-governmental organizations.

2. Examine the role of civil society organizations in globalization.
3. Discuss the various global civil society organizations
and their interests.

Civil society and non-governmental organizations or NGOs

are the third sector of the society aside from the government and
business. The UN recognizes the important role of partnering with
civil society groups and NGOs in advancing the welfare of its
stakeholders. the participatory mechanisms of NGOs and civil
society group like the Occupy Movement provide avenue for all
parties to relook actions and norms that are considered
potentially beneficial and potentially risky to all.
6.1 Global Civil Society (GCS)
The formation of UN was pivotal in the recognition of civil
society organizations and NGOs. This era was marked by
participation of NGOs in the decision making of the body. They
did not only help the role of UN in strengthening relationship with
private sectors, but these civic organizations were active also
influencing UN in adopting its ECOSOC.
NGOs have strong influences and role in globalization.
Their operations are very evident across disciplines and
industries such as commerce and trade, media and press, human
rights, environmental groups, migration and labor. These groups
and social interests are described as civil society, an activity for
groups and individuals that is relatively independent and not
within the scope if governmental interference. GCS is a global and
international network of NGOs with the purpose of influencing
governments and organizations in various issues and concerns. It
is usually identified as organized attempts to create and resists
change.
This particular form if involvement from the private sector
and NGOs in the political and economic realm is seen as armory in
the promotion of transparency and accountability. Lobbying in
governments, participating in public protest, and maintaining
information campaign are some known styles of articulating their
interests and expressing their stand on a particular issue.

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Characteristics of NGOs
1. An NGO must be entirely independent from the control
of any government. It should have its own authority and
jurisdiction over its operation and decisions. They design
their own programs and activities and maintain their
networks without interference from the government.
2. NGOs are not considered as political party. They have
participation in political issues like human rights and
environmental pollution but they are not classified as an
organization that is part of the bureaucratic operation of
the state.
3. NGOs perform their tasks not because of generating
income or profit. They are described as non-profit and not-
for-profit organization or entity. The existence and
operating costs of NGOs rely on the members' contribution
and practice of sponsorship from the private sector and
entities that have interest in their causes.
Roles of Civil Society Organizations
The World Economic Forum (WFC) outlined the following
roles of NGOs and CSOs:
1. Watchdog. CSOs monitor the behavior of institutions in
the promotion of transparency and accountability.
2. Advocate. They initiate programs that could raise public
awareness of issues and challenges and advocating for
change.
3. Service Provider. These organizations are active in
delivering services to meet societal needs including food
and security, health and education as well as
preparedness and disaster management.
4. Expert. They bring unique knowledge and experience to
evaluate policy and strategy, and identify solutions.
5. Capacity Builder. Civil society provides services
providing relevant training, education and capacity
building to communities.
6. Incubator. CSOs act as an armory in developing solutions
that requires long playback period.
7. Representative. They give power in emphasizing rights
of the marginalized and voices of under - represented.
8. Citizenship Champion. CSOs are known in encouraging
citizen engagement and championing the rights of the
minority.
9. Solidarity Supporter. They promote the ethical, just, and
humane practices as part of promoting universal values
geared towards sustainability and balanced life of the
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 many.

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 10. Definer of Standards. CSOs create and frame norms
that shape and make activities of the people and societies.

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 6.2 Transnational Nongovernmental Organizations (TNGOs)
TNGOs are international not-for-profit organizations that
are independent and are not controlled by governments. TNGOs
operate as an extension of the private life of the state
transcending from domestic to international affairs. TNGOs are
seen very active in the domestic affairs in countries under
democracy. Democratic states do not only recognize the
operation of NGOs but promote as well its involvement in the
acceleration and delivery of its services.
Economic Nongovernmental Organizations
Multinational Corporations (MNCs) and Transnational
Corporations (TNCs) are modern versions if global commercial
enterprises. MNCs are companies that have global approach to
markets and production. Giant firms owned by the world's biggest
corporations have the advantage in terms of technology,
production, logistics, and sustaining the market. These firms have
penetrated the market earning billions of dollars for its sales.
Capitalist countries have often the most number of NGOs that are
very keen on the actions and decisions of the private sector
specifically capitalists and the central or national government as
the main economic manager.

Example:
Powerful organizations and firms like Google, Toyota, ExxonMobil,
Walmart, and Samsung continuously generating profit at a large scale.

Environmental Nongovernmental Organizations

Environmental NGOs are considered as vanguard against the
abuses of capitalists and organizations that negatively affect the
environment. NGOs usually lobby to influence decision makers,
international organizations and governments. They undertake
serious actions like research fundraising, publicity and
challenging policies and legislatures that are detrimental to the
ecology and environment.

Example:
Greenpeace and World Wildlife Fund (WWF) are two most prominent
environmental NGOs. Activities and engagements of these
organizations are described as assertive and influential. They operate
in almost all countries especially those that have environmental
concerns. Greenpeace is known for its fearless stand and expression
on the neglect of the institutions in damaging oceans, shipments of
toxic products, and forest degradation in areas like Brazil. WWF on
one hand is the world's largest multinational conservation
organization.
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 Law and Human Rights Nongovernmental Organizations
The adoption of UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights in
1948 which centers on the promotion of political participation and
freedom, entitlements and access to adequate food, shelter,
clothing, and health care provided a more pronounced obligation
of the state to its citizens. This adoption was followed by the
resurgence of other bodies and conventions such as women's and
children's rights, discrimination and abuse. Under the UNs
management, the organization has the right to act issues
concerning human rights violation.

Example:

Amnesty International (AI) is one of the world's most famous and active human rights
NGOs operating in different countries worldwide. AI maintains its global prestige and
integrity of not accepting money and donations from governments and political
organizations/parties. It is known in focusing advocacies and causes on judicial and
justice system reform, abolition of death penalty, protecting the rights of migrants and
refugees as well as protection to human rights defenders, and promoting the rights of
marginalized communities and indigenous peoples.

Video Link:

Strengthening the capacity of Philippine Civil Societies

()

REFERENCE:
De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David, M.E.
(2018). Introduction to Contemporary World. St. Andrew Publishing
House.

40
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 CHAPTER 7
GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT AND DIVIDE

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Define development and identify its four paradigms.

2. Examine the agenda of sustainable development
goals, its implementation and criticisms.
3. Analyze the issues and challenges if global south and how it
relates to globalization.

Opening the local market to other economies is aimed to

enhance the competitiveness of the domestic market, thus,
generating new avenues for development. Stable economies are
often the beneficiaries if globalization. These economies are more
active and have the higher capability to compete head-to- head
with developing and develop countries. The underlying problem
with globalization as far as development is concerned is its
uneven impact to all players. Developed and middle-income
economies have the highest global share in terms of wealth
brought by globalization.
This chapter presents issues and challenges of global
development, problems faced by developing, and poor
economies as well as countries within global south.
7.1 Development
The term development us described as a process, system,
procedure. It is a state or condition of changing and enhancing
something. Oxford defines development as "a process and an
event constituting a new stage in a changing situation.” This
process requires a number of factors and consideration in
developing a part of its system or constituent elements.
Development is a complex and multidimensional concept
occurring in an uncertain condition.
Bellù (2011) stresses that the development of the other
parts of the system could be detrimental to the development of
the other thus creating structural and systemic conflicts. Critics of
global development assert that countries do not equally get the
gains of globalization. Countries that lack resources and
infrastructures are at the bottom part of the phenomenon where
the benefits are unequally distributed worldwide. Disparity is very
evident between rich and poor countries. CSOs describe this
situation as maldevelopment, a condition where developing and
less

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developed countries suffer on the downside effects of
development and changes.

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 Four Dimensions of Development
The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the UN
has enumerated the four dimensions and prevailing paradigms
of development.
Table 7.1 Four Dimensions of Development
Economic Human Sustainable Territori
Development Developm Development al
ent Developm
ent
It is focused on UN's It is the It focuses on
the qualitative Three "development that the
aspect of Dimensio meets the needs of interrelations
change that n s of the present without hip s of
sometimes Human compromising the human
people failed to Developm ability of future activities
determine like e nt: generations to meet between rural
the increased their own needs." and urban
• Long
quality of life, (Bruntland areas (Bellù,
and
social Commission) 2011)
health
improvements
y life Social
and innovations.
• Knowledg activities of
e man part of
• Decen territorial
t development
stand include
ar d of production,
living distribution,
and
Indicators: consumption
of goods and
• Life services, the
expect balance and
a ncy quality
at features of its
birth norms and
• Expect practices that
ed support the
and operation of
mean man's social
years affairs.
of
schoo
li ng
• Gross
Nation
al
Income
(GNI)
Sen (1999) Human Development is a Territorial
defined it as Development need and it must be development
"the expansion Index (HDI) observed and is composed
of capacities was created to practiced based on of clusters
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that contribute emphasize the necessity of man that linked
to the that economic and his activities and
advancement of growth environment. structures.

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society through should be used
as criterion in However, Critical to
the realization if
development efforts this
individuals', assessing the
and practices must development
firms', and development of
be in accordance is how
communities' a particular
with the harmony of clusters and
potential" country but the
nature without agencies
development of
compromising the respond to
the people and
ecological condition the
their and future
capabilities. challenges of
generation resource
scarcity
which are
then
interlinked to
problems like
food
security, space
availability, and
overcrowding

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Economic The report was a Six different The
development as a response to the definitions of development
transformation growing sustainable process if this
requires altering
disparity development dimension
some
between the (Streeten, 1991and operates on
fundamental
economic poor and rich Goutlet 2000) both national
structures, where poverty 1. The and
increasing the has become a maintenance and transnational
occupational major replacement of scope.
capacities of the challenge to 2 capital assets.
population, governments as . Maintaining the
empowering the part of its environmental
mobility of key national policy conditions for the
economic agents. making. benefit of the all.
3. Resiliency or the
ability to adjust and
cope with the
changes and crises.
4. The avoidance
of internal and
external debts in
the future.
5. Fiscal
and
political
sustainabili
ty.
6. The ability to
hand over the
programs and
projects to the
decision and
control
of the citizens
.
7.2 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
SDGs was established as part on the success of the
Millennium Development Goals of 2015. In the next 15 years,
member-countries of UN, rich and p3, developed or developing
are expected to mobilize all efforts to end the global problem of
poverty, solve inequality, and address impacts if climate change.
Parties involved in the global war on poverty believe that a
more active participation and higher level of commitments are
necessary to materialize SDGs by 2030. This global partnership
among states is not binding however, national governments have
the ownership and authority to make and implement national
policies that are in line with the objectives of SDGs. These
policies are of high quality and have accessibility to public and
other concerned bodies as a mechanism in delivering and
relevant works and outputs.
17 Sustainable Development Goals
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GOAL 1: No Poverty. End poverty in all its forms everywhere.

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GOAL 2: Zero Hunger. End hunger, achieve food security, and
improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.

GOAL 3: Good Health and Well-being. Ensure healthy lives

and promote well- being for all at all ages.

GOAL 4: Quality Education. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality

education

GOAL 5: Gender Equality. Achieve gender equality and empower

all women.

GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation. Ensure availability and sustainable

management of water and sanitation for all.

GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy. Ensure access to

affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all.

GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth. Promote sustained,

inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive
employment and decent work for all.

GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure. Build resilient

infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization

and foster innovation.

GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality. Reduce inequality within and

among countries.

GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities. Make cities and

human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable.

GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption and Production. Ensure

sustainable consumption and production patterns.

GOAL 13: Climate Action. Take urgent action to combat climate

change and its impacts.

GOAL 14: Life Below Water. Conserve and sustainably use the
oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable development.

GOAL 15: Life on Land. Protect, restore, and promote, sustainable

use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainable manage forests,
combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation
and halt biodiversity loss.

GOAL 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions. Promote peaceful

and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide
access to

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justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive
institutions at all levels.

GOAL 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goal. Strengthen the means

of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for
Sustainable Development.

How will the Sustainable Development Goals be implemented?

The Addis Ababa Action Agenda of the Third International
Conference on Financing for Development came up with the
following actions on the implementation of SDGs:
A. The success of policies and programs of SDGs rely on the
actions and willingness of members-parties and states in aligning
their plans with the kind of global commitments. Plans initiated
and implemented within the national level are gauge in how
governments respond to the demands of SDGs.
B. Resource mobilization and financing strategies are
fundamental requirements in materializing nationally-framed and
locally-led sustainable development goals.
C. The expected contribution of government, private sector, civil
society groups, and other stakeholders of the SDGs. The roles of
NGOs and CSOs are potentially advantageous in the attainment of
SDGs. These private entities and organizations perform tasks
where governments fail to act and deliver.
D. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development requires
partnership between the efforts of global community and national
government. Global governance is the main driver of achieving
SDGs with the cooperation of national governments who have
commitments and responsibilities this agenda.

7.3 Global South

In academic setting, the term global south is widely used
in social sciences like sociology, political science, and economics.
It is major subject of discourses especially topics concerning
globalization, global divide, and uneven development across the
globe.
South has a geographical connotation described as
largely equivalent, but not identical with Third World (Pagel,
Ranke, et al 2014). However, the term south does not refer to
countries outside United States and Europe, Australia and New
Zealand do not belong the "South". It also refers to countries that
are excluded if not deprived from socioeconomic prominence like
Africa, Middle East, South America, South Asia and countries
within Pacific. The inequalities and global divide between rich

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and poor countries part of globalization and territorializing is also
a part on the reality of global south (Lopez, 2007).
The idea of global south is a contemporary issue in
socioeconomic and political divide. Countries like United States,
Canada, outmost and western part of Europe, Japan, Australia,
and New Zealand are giant economies parts of the global north.
These countries are described as highly industrialized, developed,
and most advanced economies in the world. It rests on the fact
that the entire world's industrially developed countries lie to the
north of its developing countries.
Countries which belong to the global south possess
various political and economic descriptions and experiences. In
Africa, debts, poor infrastructure, education, employment, health
care, and peace and security are key impediments. The region's
problem on poverty is the fundamental challenge of governments
and institutions providing key to these countries.
Asian countries are fond to be a combination of
emerging and developing economies with the exception of
Singapore. Domestic and regional problems like unstable
governments, rule of law ad environmental pollution are
continuously at the frontline of concerns in the region. Central
Asia on the other hand consists of countries that have
experienced transitioning governments. There are former
territories of the Soviet Union and stabilizing the economy
brought by the damage of the former communist Soviet regime is
still evident. Political and economic reforms are insufficient to
address the fabric of communism during the Cold War era.
West Asian region has its unique social struggle. The
region is confined in a costly conflict involving territorial
insecurity, peace and order, and competing extreme ideological
clashes. Thought the region is an oil- rich country but regional
issue are barriers in the development process of West Asia.
Natural disaster and the absence of sufficient
investment as major source of the economy, make countries in
the Pacific Islands a victims of slow growth. Its economies are
dependent with the influx of business and commercial activities of
nearby countries in the Pacific as well as countries in Oceania,
Asia, and America.
Countries belonging to Latin America are trapped in
turbulent economic environment. Regional matters like unstable
democratic governance and fiscal problems are known
challenging facing countries of the region. Latin and Caribbean
countries are described as countries that have experienced "lost
development" because of missed economic opportunities
especially in the 60s and 70s.
Causes of Global Divide

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 The following are some of the main factors of causing
global divide between the north and south.
1. Globalization in the 1990
The economic intensification observed in the 90s
fueled countries to establish boundaries. Poor countries
that can not cope with the demands of the rich and
developed countries suffer most of the potential damage of
globalization. Countries of the global south especially
under unstable governments and weak economics failed to
produce outputs as a response to the internationalization
system of economy and government. There were countries
that disappear from the pipelines of the global competition.
Some countries mostly third world shifted its interest
through relying to a more powerful economy.
2. Uneven Immigration
The pattern of migration in the last three decades
saw an unprecedented rise of migrant workers and citizens
seeking greener opportunities in other countries. People
from Asia targeted Western Europe and America as ideal
point of employment. Developed countries that are on the
height of technological development, advancement, and
high quality of social services became the man venues
accepting migrants. This trend continues to happen in the
current times where in most countries of the global south
found this opportunity as an alternative to the absence of
jobs available in the local economy.

3. The hegemonic nature if international economic relations

The global problem of poverty and inequality are
outcomes of the evil practices of western countries. These
problems are associated with the abuse of capitalists who
control most of the world's wealth. International
institutions that have the power and resources are very
silent and unresponsive in these problems experiencing
countries in the global south. Countries in the global south
are trapped in the hands of developed countries where
rising financial obligations like loam programs are
continuously punishing economies of the south.

Video Link:
What is North – South Divide? (https://youtu.be/2WQrY4xMfks)

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REFERENCE:
De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David, M.E. (2018).
Introduction to Contemporary World. St. Andrew Publishing House.

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 CHAPTER 8
GLOBAL MEDIA
CULTURES

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. explain different forms and Theories of international communication

2. describe the interrelation and distinctions between Global

Culture, Westernization and Americanization.

3. explain how the process of acculturation or assimilation have

shaped the present global cultural identities..

8.1 Global Ideas and Communication

Public sphere (German word: “Öffentlichkeit”) is a social

life where individuals can come together to freely discuss and identify
societal problems, and through that discussion influence political
action. It was originally coined by German Philosopher Jurgen Habermas
who defined "the public sphere as a virtual or imaginary community
which does not necessarily exist in any identifiable space". The public
sphere can be seen as "a theater in modern societies in which political
participation is enacted through the medium of talk" and "a realm of
social life in which public opinion can be formed." The ideology of the
public sphere theory is that the government's laws and policies should
be steered by the public sphere and that the only legitimate
governments are those that listen to the public sphere.

Habermas also defined public sphere as a “society engaged in

critical public debate." The conditions of the public sphere are according
to Habermas: the formation of public opinion, all citizens have access,
conference in unrestricted fashion (based on the freedom of assembly,
the freedom of association, the freedom of expression and publication of
opinions) about matters of general interest, which implies freedom from
economic and political control, and the debate over the general rules
government relations.

On the other hand, propaganda is information that is not objective

and used primarily to influence and further and agenda, often by
presenting facts selectively to encourage particular synthesis or
perception or using loaded language to produce an emotional rather than
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a rational response to the information that is presented. A wide range
of materials and media are used for

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conveying propaganda messages, which changed as new technologies
were invented including paintings, cartoons, posters, pamphlets, film,
radio shows, TV shows, and websites.

The propaganda model is a theory advanced by Edward S.

Herman and Noam Chomsky which argues systemic biases in the mass
media and seeks to explain them in terms of structural economic
causes. Although the model was based mainly in the characterization of
United State media, Chomsky and Herman believe the theory is equally
applicable to any country that shares the basic economic structure and
organizing the model postulates as the cause of media bias.

Another theory concerning propaganda is the Epistemic Merit

Model conceived by Sheryl Tuttle Ross. Ross argues that one must
consider a threefold communication, the Sender-Message-Receiver
model, which includes the message sender or the persuader (who made
the message out of his personal intention), a channel (where the
persuader will send the message) through the receiver (which is the
target for such persuasion). She also added that there are four
conditions for a message to be considered propaganda. Propaganda
involves the intention to persuade. Also, propaganda is sent on behalf of
a socio- political institution, organization, or cause. Next, the recipient of
propaganda is a socially significant group of people. Finally, propaganda
is a epistemic struggle to challenge others thoughts.

8.2 Normative Theories of Communication

8.2.1 Authoritarian Theory

This originated from the philosophy of Plato in Ancient Greece

adapted by European Monarchs in the medieval period exercising full
control over the press.

Authoritarian Media Theory basically suppresses press freedom

as not to encourage the people to think and act negatively of the
government. All forms of media or communication are regulated by a
governing elite group that regulates the communication process
between the media and the audience. Although this media theory could
help resolve issues since it is the state or the government that
“dictates” what to be done which may guide the press and the people to
support and cooperate. In this theory, the audience usually couls
establish propaganda thru the one and unified thinking since it is only
the government voice that is being heard alone.

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 Theory Strength Weaknesses Opportunities Threats
Authoritaria All forms of In a one-way In an Media
n communicatio communicatio authoritarian only
n n
comes from process, there model, there serves the
the
governing is no feedback would be interests
elite,
a monarch or mechanism, stability, of the
a so
dictator and the governing peace and ruling
in elite
this vertical elite does not security in and
and
downward know how the the enhances
flow
of people think, environment the power
communicatio feel, and media is of a
n,
there will be behave controlled to monarch
toward
more the ruling protect and or
effective dictator,
decision- power. prevent the which
making, people from could lead
efficiency will any threats. to
be increased disconten
t
and discipline or even a
will be bloody
maintained. and
violent
revolution
.

8.2.2 Soviet Communist Model

This model began in the late 19th century and was used by the
former Soviet Union, now modern Russia, after the 1917 Bolshevik
Revolution when the car was overthrown. The ruling power or the
government continued to control the press but instead of working for
the personal interests of rulers, it serves the interests of the working
class but under the guidance of the party in power. There is no
democracy and freedom as there is still censorship and the press
supports the government.

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 In the modern world, Cuba remained under this model where
media is state-controlled and owned.

The Soviet – Communist Media Theory controls the media which

is similar to the Authoritarian Media Theory but promotes equality. It is
the interests of the people that are given attention and focus but also
gives consideration to

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the authority of the government. In this theory, the government may
somehow control the communication process but does not totally
suppress press freedom. The state simply filters the news and
information disseminated to complement the interest of the audience.

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

Soviet The model The media The media serves This

Communist is a two-way works under the people model
without
Media process the leadership, any authoritative puts an
encouraging promoting blockades, using end to
the public to national information to private
provide interests rather develop people's ownership
feedback, than personal skills and fulfill of media
which would agendas. their basic needs. and
create journalists
interests support
towards the
media. leadership
rather
serves as
a
watchdog.

8.2.3 Libertarian Theory

The concept of this model started in the new world, in the United
States, when Englishmen escaped from the tyranny of the monarchy to
establish a free world and liberal thinking. This model is opposed to
both Authoritarian and Soviet-communist theories and promotes
freedom and democracy. The press or media is given liberty or freedom
to create public awareness. Any negative news and information are
considered opportunity to guide the people to know the good But, the
press, unrestrained, exceeded their limits by ignoring decency and
privacy and exaggerating its information. Yellow journalism flourished
due to competition in private owned media.

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

Libertarian Press is There is no It promotes Too much
given the freedom of democracy and leniency
liberty or information provides checks may harm
freedom to and freedom of and balances to the
reveal the the press government, relationship

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 truth - because the preventing between the
media is government corruption. media and
empowere protects its the
d to interest and government
present the filters negative - members
truth be it ill information of the
or good.. that maybe a society will
threat to the be caught
state. between its
loyalty to the
government
or getting
influenced
by the
press/media
.

8.2.4 Social Responsibility Theory

SRT gives media the right to be owned and operated by a private

entity. It is not governed by a media censorship because the press is
guided by a set of ethics. Sensationalized news and information can be
questioned even if there is media freedom.

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSE OPPORTUNITI THREATS

S ES
Social Yellow Ethics are The voiceless There are
Responsibility journalism always vague, and times
or when
sensationali ambiguous, marginalized the press
s
m decreases and differ people are able severely
as media from case to to raise their damaged
can
be case so there voices due to the
questioned are no pluralism and reputation
by the law standards in diversification of some
on
and public information news and politicians
as
well as self- and people involved through
regulation is communicatio in it. irresponsib
l
exercised n. e
by reporting,
the press leading to
major
conflicts of

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 society.

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 8.2.5 Democratic Participant Theory

DPT exercises press freedom and lets the target audience

participate or gets involved in news and information by
expressing their own personal viewpoints.

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSE OPPORTUNITIE THREATS

S S
Democratic The model Communicatio Criticisms may be Allowing the
Participant is n reach is accepted by the audience
completely limited government as widely to
non-political because it is long as these participate
and does only wanting presented with media
not bolster local non- objectively activities
and
political institutionalize through the use consider
d
control and media provide of correct forms alternative
encourages the information of media without when
national relevant to the purpose dissatisfied
developmen small groups of encouraging the empowers
t and population. audience to the
stand audience
supporting against the state. to be choosy
9local and
culture. inconsiderat
e
.

8.2.6 Development Communication Media Theory

The main idea behind this model is media will play a role for
development of people in a nation or to help the target population. It
focuses on issues disseminated by the media considered as a guide in
the development if a country wherein the target audience participates
and gets involved.

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

Development Helps in The socially The concept of Encourages
Communication development engineered participation in the
of
Media local and messages this model audience to
international were encourages be too
projects - disseminated social change, dependent
which helps for a uplifting the with media
in
propaganda quality of life of and the
the growth
and to control people not only government
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 progress of culture of the economically since this
a poor but
country most

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 especially the countries. also socially, theory
small group culturally, and promotes
of
politically. and
people who
supports
are unaware
developmen
of the use of
t
media.
projects.

8.2.7Agenda-setting Media Theory

This model gave rise to the power of global and international news
agencies to set their own agenda, apart from rulers, ruling powers, and
governments. The press makes sure that significant events reach the
knowledge of the people

THEOR STRENGTH WEAKNESSE OPPORTUNITIE THREATS

Y S S
Agenda- Agenda Media has the Creates impact An agenda
setting setting is the tendency not over public may spark
to
Media ability of present/publish thinking on the
media to a news or certain political, beginning
determine information if it social, or of a
salience of does not have economic propagand
issues with any notable agenda. a through
news, significance or the concept
through not salient to of framing.
cognitive them - when
process media sees no
called value in the
"accessibility news.
"
, which is the
process of
retrieving
an
issue in the
memory.

8.2.8 Gate Keeping Media Theory

This theory shows the power and influence of traditional and

mainstream media in everyday lives of people. Media selects and
decides which information is important and relevant for the people.

THEOR STRENGTH WEAKNESSE OPPORTUNITIE THREATS

Y S S

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 8. Gate Gatekeeping There is a Unfiltered news Filtered
Keeping sets the probability or or information news or
Media standard for tendency can help the informati
newsworthine that even public to see o n dies
ss factual the real not help
. information situation as to the
will not be train them to audience
published if be in flexible to see
the news on- responding and the real
hand is not adjusting to scenario,
favorable to possible crisis. therefore
the It can help the , it does
government audience to not
or members appreciate support
of elite and/or flexibility
groups. constructively of the
criticize the people in
state. coping
with
probable
crisis. It
only
makes
them
depende
nt on
positive
situation
s only.

8.3 Global Culture, Westernization and Americanization

Modernization -- which is normally related to the words

change, progress, and development -- refers to process of adapting
something to the present needs or habits. In a way, one who opts to
modernization is one that is practical and flexible. Westernization,
on the other hand, refers to the process whereby societies adopt or
imbibe the Western culture in areas such a industry, law, politics,
economics, and other fields. Americanization pertains to the action
of making a person or thing American in character or nationality.

In the study by Chi-Yue and his co-authors (2011) they carried

out two cross-regional studies to examine lay people's perception of
globalization and its related concepts, as well as lay people's
appraisal of

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the social impacts of globalization. In their words : "The issues that
are commonly perceived to be strongly associated with
globalization fall into one of the five categories: (1) global consumer
brands; (2) information technology that promote global
connectivity; (3) geographic mobility (passport, air travel,
immigration); (4) global calamities; and (5) international trade and
regulatory bodies. Lay perceivers in international trade and
technology. Lay understandings of globalization also encompass
awareness of the positive consequences (e.g., increase
geographical mobility) of globalization as well as its negative
consequences (e.g., global calamities). Indeed, international trade
versus technology, and globalization of consumption versus its
global consequences seem to be the dimension is that organize lay
people's categorization of globalization related issues.

Others accept with open arms the advent of the globalization

of the production as well as the distribution of goods and services
for the benefits that they derive from this. One of which is the
access to products which are made available to them. On the other
hand, others are affected by this especially the producers.

8.4 Enculturation, Acculturation and Assimilation in Globalization

Enculturation refers to the process of learning our own

(native) culture, whereas, acculturation is the process of learning
and adopting host cultural norms, values and beliefs. Learning
native cultural norms and values of a particular society are essential
for an individual, to function in a society.

Enculturation is anthropological term used for socialization,

both terms refer to, the process of learning through social
interaction. However, the term enculturation is only confined to
culture. Whereas socialization refer to each and every social
interaction of an individual with other people of a society.

Since conception, baby starts interacting with his family

members most of all with mother. Parents teach their children how
to eat, drink, walk, play, and behave in different situations.
However, parents teach all those things according to their own
culture. For instance, Middle Eastern families eat food with their
bare hands whereas, American families use fork and knife to eat
food. So, children born and raised in Middle Eastern families are
enculturate to eat food with bare hands. Whereas American children
are enculturated to eat food with fork and knife. Culture can be
transmitted from one generation to another. During the process of
cultural transmission, learning a culture by a new generation is
called enculturation.

On the other hand, adopting foreign culture or other cultural

norms and values is known as acculturation. In this new
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technological era people can interact with other people living
thousands mile away from them. Due to

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 social interaction through technology and with mass media people
learn new values. And if people adopt those learned values of other
culture and modify their own culture, it will come under the category
of acculturation. Mostly, group of people acculturate because they
are influenced by the dominant culture in a given society. For
instance, A Pakistani boy SHAHID immigrates to America, during his
first year, he wears, kurta shalwar; which is his native cultural
costume but after a year, he starts wearing, t-shirts jeans, suits and
tuxedos, so SHAHID acculturated; for the reason that, he adopted
foreign culture .

When two different cultures becomes similar then we can say

that assimilation occurs. Assimilation is the process in which native
culture go through complete change and adopt all the elements of
host culture. In other words, if one can differentiate between the
host culture and native culture after going through a change, then
the process is known as acculturation. Whereas, if one cannot
differentiate between the host culture and native culture after going
through a change, the phenomenon will be called Assimilation. In
assimilation process the minority culture get completely absorbed
into dominant majority culture. (www.sociologylearners.com )

Video Link:
The Media Industry and Globalization

De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David,
M.E. (2018). Introduction to Contemporary World. St. Andrew
Publishing House.

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 CHAPTER 9
GLOBAL RELIGIONS

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. know the major religions of the world and their tenets
2. understand Globalization and Religious Pluralism

3. analyze religious conflict and violence

9.1 Definition of Religion

What is religion? Pioneer sociologist Émile Durkheim

described it with the ethereal statement that it consists of “things
that surpass the limits of our knowledge” (1915). He went on to
elaborate: Religion is “a unified system of beliefs and practices
relative to sacred things, that is to say set apart and forbidden,
beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral
community, called a church, all those who adhere to them”
(1915). Some people associate religion with places of worship (a
synagogue or church), others with a practice (confession or
meditation), and still others with a concept that guides their daily
lives (like dharma or sin). All of these people can agree that
religion is a system of beliefs, values, and practices concerning
what a person holds sacred or considers to be
spiritually significant.
(https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology)

9.2 Major Religions

9.2.1 Christianity

Christian Philosophy began as a Jewish Sect in Jerusalem

proclaiming Jesus of Nazareth as the Messiah. After Constantine
came into power, he established Christianity as a quasi- official
state religion of the Roman Empire in Ad 324.

Despite the many different divisions and sects of

Christianity, most seem to agree, with some variations on the
following: God is the creator of all things; Jesus is the Messiah,
Christ, son of God; human being is a sinner who requires
redemption; the Holy Trinity includes God the Father,
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 God the Son and the Holy Spirit; Christ came down to Earth to
redeem mankind, the soul is immortal.

9.2.2 Hinduism

It is the major religion in India. Hinduism is the world’s oldest

religion, according to many scholars, with roots and customs dating
back more than 4,000 years. Today, with about 900 million
followers, Hinduism is the third-largest religion behind Christianity
and Islam. The oldest religion in the world, Hinduism originated in
the Indus River Valley about 4,500 years ago in what is now
modern-day northwest India and Pakistan. It arose
contemporaneously with ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian
cultures. With roughly one billion followers, Hinduism is the third-
largest of the world’s religions. Hindus believe in a divine power
that can manifest as different entities. Three main incarnations—
Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva— are sometimes compared to the
manifestations of the divine in the Christian Trinity.

Multiple sacred texts, collectively called the Vedas, contain

hymns and rituals from ancient India and are mostly written in
Sanskrit. Hindus generally believe in a set of principles called
dharma, which refer to one’s duty in the world that corresponds
with “right” actions. Hindus also believe in karma, or the notion
that spiritual ramifications of one’s actions are balanced cyclically
in this life or a future life (reincarnation).
(https://courses.lumenlearning.com )

9.2.3 Buddhism

Buddhism is a faith that was founded by Siddhartha

Gautama (“the Buddha”) more than 2,500 years ago in India.
With about 470 million followers, scholars consider Buddhism one
of the major world religions. Its practice has historically been
most prominent in East and Southeast Asia, but its influence is
growing in the West. Many Buddhist ideas and philosophies
overlap with those of other faiths.
• Followers of Buddhism don’t acknowledge a supreme god
or deity. They instead focus on achieving enlightenment—
a state of inner peace and wisdom. When followers reach
this spiritual echelon, they’re said to have experienced
Nirvana.
• The religion’s founder, Buddha, is considered an
extraordinary man, but not a god. The word Buddha
means “enlightened.”

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 • The path to enlightenment is attained by utilizing
morality, meditation and wisdom. Buddhists often
meditate because they believe it helps awaken truth.
• Buddhists embrace the concepts of karma (the law of
cause and effect) and reincarnation (the continuous
cycle of rebirth).
• Followers of Buddhism can worship in temples or in
their own homes.
• Buddhist monks, or bhikkhus, follow a strict code of
conduct, which includes celibacy. (www.history.com)

9.2.4 Islam

Muslims believe there is the one almighty God, named

Allah, who is infinitely superior to and transcendent from
humankind. Allah is viewed as the creator of the universe and the
source of all good and all evil. Everything that happens is Allah's
will. He is a powerful and strict judge, who will be merciful toward
followers depending on the sufficiency of their life's good works
and religious devotion. A follower's relationship with Allah is as a
servant to Allah.
Though a Muslim honors several prophets, Muhammad is
considered the last prophet and his words and lifestyle are that
person's authority. To be a Muslim, one must follow five religious
duties: 1. Repeat a creed about Allah and Muhammad; 2. Recite
certain prayers in Arabic five times a day; 3. Give to the needy; 4.
One month each year, fast from food, drink, sex and smoking
from sunrise to sunset; 5. Pilgrimage once in one's lifetime to
worship at a shrine in Mecca. At death -- based on one's
faithfulness to these duties -- a Muslim hopes to enter Paradise. If
not, they will be eternally punished in hell.

For many people, Islam matches their expectations about

religion and deity. Islam teaches that there is one supreme deity,
who is worshiped through good deeds and disciplined religious
rituals. After death a person is rewarded or punished according to
their religious devotion. Muslims believe that giving up one’s life
for Allah is a sure way of entering Paradise.
(https://www.everystudent.com)

9.2.5 Confucianism

Confucianism was the official religion of China from 200

B.C.E. until it was officially abolished when communist leadership
discouraged religious practice in 1949. The religion was developed
by Kung Fu-Tzu (Confucius), who lived in the sixth and fifth
centuries B.C.E. An extraordinary teacher, his lessons—which
were about self-discipline, respect for authority and tradition, and
jen (the kind treatment of every person)—were collected in a book
called the Analects.

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 Some religious scholars consider Confucianism more of a
social system than a religion because it focuses on sharing
wisdom about moral

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 practices but doesn’t involve any type of specific worship; nor
does it have formal objects. In fact, its teachings were developed
in context of problems of social anarchy and a near-complete
deterioration of social cohesion. Dissatisfied with the social
solutions put forth, Kung Fu-Tzu developed his own model of
religious morality to help guide society (Smith 1991).

9.2.6 Taoism

In Taoism, the purpose of life is inner peace and harmony.

Tao is usually translated as “way” or “path.” The founder of the
religion is generally recognized to be a man named Laozi, who
lived sometime in the sixth century B.C.E. in China. Taoist beliefs
emphasize the virtues of compassion and moderation.
The central concept of Tao can be understood to describe a
spiritual reality, the order of the universe, or the way of modern
life in harmony with the former two. The ying-yang symbol and
the concept of polar forces are central Taoist ideas (Smith 1991).
Some scholars have compared this Chinese tradition to its
Confucian counterpart by saying that “whereas Confucianism is
concerned with day-to-day rules of conduct, Taoism is concerned
with a more spiritual level of being” (Feng and English 1972).

9.3 Globalization and Religious Pluralism

Globalization brings a culture of pluralism, meaning religions

“with overlapping but distinctive ethics and interests” interact with
one another. Essentially, the world’s leading religious traditions teach
values such as human dignity, equality, freedom, peace, and
solidarity. More specifically, religions maintain the Golden Rule: “what
you do not wish done to yourself, do not do to others.” Therefore,
through such religious values, globalization engenders greater
religious tolerance in such areas as politics, economics, and society.

In political areas, globalization has built global political forums

that integrate cultural, ethnic, and religious differences—ideologies
that were once perceived as dividing the world—through a large
number of international organizations such as the United Nations (UN)
and the World Health Organization (WHO), as well regional
organizations like the European Union (EU), the Organization of the
Islamic Conference (OIC), or the African Union (AU). When discussing
issues such as international peace and security, health issues,
poverty, and environment, these organizations generally share many
of the same basic commitments as religious traditions—mainly peace,
human dignity, and human equality, as well as conflict resolution in
which they actively engage in negotiation, mediation, and diplomacy
(Golebiewski,2014)
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9.4 Religions, conflict and Violence

Religious violence is a term that covers phenomena where religion is

either the subject or the object of violent behavior.[1] Religious
violence is violence that is motivated by, or in reaction to, religious
precepts, texts, or the doctrines of a target or an attacker. It includes
violence against religious institutions, people, objects, or events.
Religious violence does not exclusively refer to acts which are
committed by religious groups, instead, includes acts which are
committed against religious groups.

"Violence" is a very broad concept that is difficult to define since it is

used on both human and non-human objects.[2] Furthermore, the term
can denote a wide variety of experiences such as blood shedding,
physical harm, forcing against personal freedom, passionate conduct or
language, or emotions such as fury and passion.

Although not necessarily so, there are some aspects of religion that
make it susceptible to being a latent source of conflict. All religions have
their accepted dogma, or articles of belief, that followers must accept
without question. This can lead to inflexibility and intolerance in the face
of other beliefs. After all, if it is the word of God, how can one
compromise it? At the same time, scripture and dogma are often vague
and open to interpretation. Therefore, conflict can arise over whose
interpretation is the correct one, a conflict that ultimately cannot be
solved because there is no arbiter. The winner generally is the
interpretation that attracts the most followers. However, those followers
must also be motivated to action. Although, almost invariably, most of
any faith hold moderate views, they are often more complacent,
whereas extremists are motivated to bring their interpretation of God's
will to fruition.

Religious extremists can contribute to conflict escalation. They see

radical measures as necessary to fulfilling God's wishes.
Fundamentalists of any religion tend to take a Manichean view of the
world. If the world is a struggle between good and evil, it is hard to
justify compromising with the devil. Any sign of moderation can be
decried as selling out, more importantly, of abandoning God's will.
(https://www.beyondintractability.org)

Video Link:
5 Most Powerful Religions In The
World

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 CHAPTER 10
DEMOGRAPHY AND
POPULATION

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Understand the basic concepts and measures of demography.
2. Trace the source and historical growth of the population
3. Critically evaluate the validity of different population theories.
4. Draw a conclusion regarding the underlying relationship between
population growth, food security and development.

October 31, 2011 was considered as the day of the 7 billionth

baby. In the Philippines the 7 billionth baby was awarded to Danica May
Camacho born at the Fabella Hospital in Manila. The UN officers to the
Philippines brought a cake and other gifts to Danica May such as
scholarship grant and financial support for her parents to start a general
merchandise store.

But the symbolic day of the birth of Danica may is more of a

concern than a celebration. According to the UN Chief Ban Ki-moon,
more concern should ne given to billions of people who go to bed hungry
in contrast to those few who enjoy life of luxury. This is a story of 7
billion people who need enough food, enough energy, good
opportunities in jobs and education, rights, and freedom
(www.collegenews.com)

Its because of this fact that there is a need to study population.

Change in population size constitutes some of the important features of
social transition and change. Like the introduction of new forms of
technology, increase or decrease in population can also be catalyst for
social change.

10.1 Basic Concepts

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 Demography is the science that deals with the study of
population. Three of the most important components that affect the
issues above are fertility,

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mortality, and migration. The fertility rate of a society is a measure noting
the number of children born. The fertility number is generally lower
than the fecundity number, which measures the potential number of
children that could be born to women of childbearing age. Sociologists
measure fertility using the crude birthrate (the number of live births per
1,000 people per year). Just as fertility measures childbearing, the
mortality rate is a measure of the number of people who die. The crude
death rate is a number derived from the number of deaths per 1,000
people per year. When analyzed together, fertility and mortality rates
help researchers understand the overall growth occurring in a
population. Another key element in studying populations is the
movement of people into and out of an area called migration.

Changing fertility, mortality, and migration rates make up the

total population composition, a snapshot of the demographic profile of a
population. This number can be measured for societies, nations, world
regions, or other groups. The population composition includes the sex
ratio, the number of men for every hundred women, as well as the
population pyramid, a picture of population distribution by sex and
age. Currently, the world has around 7.8 billion population.

Top 20 Largest Countries by Population 2021

Source: https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/population-by-country/

1 China 1,439,323,776

2 India 1,380,004,385

3 U.S.A. 331,002,651

4 Indonesia 273,523,615

5 Pakistan 220,892,340

6 Brazil 212,559,417

7 Nigeria 206,139,589

8 Bangladesh 164,689,383

9 Russia 145,934,462

10 Mexico 128,932,753

11 Japan 126,476,461

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 12 Ethiopia 114,963,588

13 Philippines 109,581,078

14 Egypt 102,334,404

15 Vietnam 97,338,579

16 D.R. Congo 89,561,403

17 Turkey 84,339,067

18 Iran 83,992,949

19 Germany 83,783,942

20 Thailand 69,799,978

10.2 Demographic Theories

Sociologists have long looked at population issues as central to

understanding human interactions. Below we will look at four theories
about population that inform sociological thought: Malthusian, zero
population growth, cornucopian, and demographic transition theories.

10.2.1 Malthusian Theory

Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) was an English clergyman who

made dire predictions about earth’s ability to sustain its growing
population. According to Malthusian theory, three factors would control
human population that exceeded the earth’s carrying capacity, or how
many people can live in a given area considering the number of
available resources. Malthus identified these factors as war, famine,
and disease (Malthus 1798). He termed them “positive checks” because
they increase mortality rates, thus keeping the population in check.
They are countered by “preventive checks,” which also control the
population but by reducing fertility rates; preventive checks include
birth control and celibacy. Thinking practically, Malthus saw that people
could produce only so much food in a given year, yet the population was
increasing at an exponential rate. Eventually, he thought people would
run out of food and begin to starve. They would go to war over
increasingly scarce resources and reduce the population to a
manageable level, and then the cycle would begin anew.

Of course, this has not exactly happened. The human population

has continued to grow long past Malthus’s predictions. So what
happened? Why didn’t we die off? There are three reasons sociologists
believe we are continuing

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to expand the population of our planet. First, technological increases in
food production have increased both the amount and quality of calories
we can produce per person. Second, human ingenuity has developed
new medicine to curtail death from disease. Finally, the development
and widespread use of contraception and other forms of family planning
have decreased the speed at which our population increases. But what
about the future? Some still believe Malthus was correct and that ample
resources to support the earth’s population will soon run out.

10.2.2 Zero Population Growth

A neo-Malthusian researcher named Paul Ehrlich brought

Malthus’s predictions into the twentieth century. However, according to
Ehrlich, it is the environment, not specifically the food supply, that will
play a crucial role in the continued health of planet’s population (Ehrlich
1968). Ehrlich’s ideas suggest that the human population is moving
rapidly toward complete environmental collapse, as privileged people
use up or pollute a number of environmental resources such as water
and air. He advocated for a goal of zero population growth (ZPG), in which
the number of people entering a population through birth or immigration
is equal to the number of people leaving it via death or emigration. While
support for this concept is mixed, it is still considered a possible solution
to global overpopulation.

10.2.3 Cornucopian Theory

Of course, some theories are less focused on the pessimistic

hypothesis that the world’s population will meet a detrimental challenge
to sustaining itself. Cornucopian theory scoffs at the idea of humans
wiping themselves out; it asserts that human ingenuity can resolve any
environmental or social issues that develop. As an example, it points to
the issue of food supply. If we need more food, the theory contends,
agricultural scientists will figure out how to grow it, as they have already
been doing for centuries. After all, in this perspective, human ingenuity
has been up to the task for thousands of years and there is no reason for
that pattern not to continue (Simon 1981).

10.2.4 Demographic Transition Theory

Whether you believe that we are headed for environmental

disaster and the end of human existence as we know it, or you think
people will always adapt to changing circumstances, we can see clear
patterns in population growth. Societies develop along a predictable
continuum as they evolve from unindustrialized to postindustrial.
Demographic transition theory (Caldwell and Caldwell 2006) suggests
that future population growth will develop along a predictable four-stage
model.

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 In Stage 1, birth, death, and infant mortality rates are all high,
while life expectancy is short. An example of this stage is the 1800s in
the United States. As countries begin to industrialize, they enter Stage
2, where birthrates are higher while infant mortality and the death
rates drop. Life expectancy also increases. Afghanistan is currently in
this stage. Stage 3 occurs once a society is thoroughly industrialized;
birthrates decline, while life expectancy continues to increase. Death
rates continue to decrease. Mexico’s population is at this stage. In the
final phase, Stage 4, we see the postindustrial era of a society. Birth and
death rates are low, people are healthier and live longer, and society
enters a phase of population stability. Overall population may even
decline. For example, Sweden is considered to be in Stage 4.

The United Nations Population Fund (2008) categorizes nations as

high fertility, intermediate fertility, or low fertility. The United Nations
(UN) anticipates the population growth will triple between 2011 and
2100 in high-fertility countries, which are currently concentrated in sub-
Saharan Africa. For countries with intermediate fertility rates (the United
States, India, and Mexico all fall into this category), growth is expected
to be about 26 percent. And low-fertility countries like China, Australia,
and most of Europe will actually see population declines of
approximately 20 percent. The graphs below illustrate this
trend. ( https://courses.lumenlearning.com)

Video Link:
Joel Cohen: An Introduction to
Demography

De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David,
M.E. (2018). Introduction to Contemporary World. St. Andrew
Publishing House.

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 CHAPTER 11

GLOBAL MIGRATION

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Understand the basic concept of migration, and theories of migration.
2. Distinguish the various types of migrants, their patterns
and their special needs.
3. Know the consequences of migration.

11.1 Basic Concepts In Migration

As discussed in the previous chapter, migration is one of the

processes that influence the demographic structure of the country. To
reiterate, migration pertains to the act or process of crossing the
boundary of a political or administrative unit for certain minimum period
(Boyle et; 1998 as quoted by Dicolen, 2013). It comes from the Latin
word “Migratio” which means physical movements by people from one
area to another, sometimes over long distances or in large groups
(Dicolen, 2013:55). The concept of migration usually involves the
“detachment from the organization of activities at one place and the
movement of total round of activities to another”, although admittedly,
this is not always the primary consideration of migration.

Not all types of change in one’s residence are called migration.

For a change of residence to be considered migration, it must cross a
certain political or administrative unit. Otherwise, it is merely a
movement. An example of the movement is when there is a change of
residence within the same barangay. Furthermore, such movement
must also be for a well-defined period, which may be as temporary as six
months, or as permanent as a lifetime abode. Hence, any brief change in
residence, say for two months, is just merely a vacation, and not
migration.

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 An individual who moves from one area or region to another is
called a migrant. He / She is also known as emigrant from the point of
view of the place of origin and an immigrant from the point of view of the
place of destination. Migrants may be permanent, long term or short
term according to the length of the stay in the place of destination. It is
permanent if the migrant does not return to his or her place of origin;
long-term if the usual stay extends to more than 12 months; and short –
term if it falls below 12 months.

Migration can also be classified according to choice. It is classified

as voluntary if the migrant decides to move by his choice. Most of
these migrants are labor-related such as the case of temporary labor
migrants, who migrate for a limited period as guest-workers or overseas
contract workers from a few months to several years in order to take up
employment and send home money (Remittances); highly-skilled and
business migrants, who are hired as managers, executives,
professionals, technicians and similar, who move with the internal labor
markets of transnational corporations and international organizations,
or who seek employment through international labor markets for scarce
skills; irregular migrants, who enter a country, usually in search of
employments without the necessary documents and permits; and return
migrants, who return to their countries of origin after a period in another
country.

There is also migration by involuntary choice. This includes

refugees, people residing outside of their country of Nationality, who is
unable or Unwillingly to return because of a well-founded fear of
persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a
particular social group, or political opinion. It also includes asylum-
seekers, or those people who moves across borders seeking protection,
but who may not fulfill the strict criteria laid down by the 1952
Convention. Further, this also includes the forced migrants, or those
forced to move by environmental catastrophes or development projects
such as new factories, road or dams.

Finally, migration is generally classified into internal and

international migration. Internal migration refers to a move from one
area (a province, district or municipality) to another within one country.
International migration on the other hand refers means crossing the
frontiers which separates one of the world’s approximately 200 states
from another (Castles, 2000:169)

11.2 Reasons of Migration

11.2.1 Neo-Classical Theory

According to Neo-Classical theory, migration is usually associated

with individual’s efforts to maximize their income my moving from
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low-income to high wage economies (Borjas, 1989 as quoted by
Castles, 2000:272). This

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 is the most common reason for migration especially the migration of
one coming from a developing nation to a developed one with high
proportion of underemployment in the country of origin. The current
pattern of migration is an empirical data of this theory.

11.2.2 Labor Migration Theory

This theory is a new economic approach in explaining

migration. It argues that migration cannot simply be explained by
income differences between two countries, but also by factors such as
chances of secure employment, availability of capital for
entrepreneurial activity, and the need to manage risk over long
periods. Migration decisions are made not just by individuals but most
often represent family strategies to maximize income and survival
chance (Hugo, 1994 as quoted by Castles, 2000:272) (

11.2.3 Migration System Theory

This theory is argued as an outcome of collaboration of two

countries where the migration system is constituted by two or more
countries which exchange migrants with each other. In this system, it
is necessary to examine both ends of the flow and study the linkages
(economic, cultural, political, military, etc.) Between the places
concerned. Migratory movements generally arise from the existence
of prior links between sending and receiving countries based on
colonization, political influence, trade, investment, or cultural ties
(ibid; 2000:272)

While this is the most prevailing reason for migration, this

does not capture other reasons of migration. As already mentioned,
there are some reasons of migrations which are not economic or
income-related especially those who are driven away from their place
residence.

11.2.4 Push-Pull Theory

The Most Popular theory explaining the causes of migration is one

propounded by Ravenstein (1889) known as the Push-Pull Theory.
This theory states that some people move because they are pushed
out of their former location (push factors), or because they have been
pulled or attracted to some places elsewhere (pull Factor) Examples
of the push factor are scarcity of Job Opportunity, Poor medical care,
death threats, poor housing, natural disasters, famine, loss of wealth
and discrimination. Pull Factors on the other hand are the opposite
Better Job Opportunities, Improved Living conditions, Political and/or
Religious freedom, attractive climates, better Education, ect.
Ravenstein further opined that pull factors were more important than
the push factors because in most instances, people move in order to
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improve themselves in material respects, but they would rather
endure the conditions

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 in their current residence unless attached by the abovementioned
pull factors. To do this however, a potential migrant usually weighs
the cost-benefit of migration.

Most of movement or migration has been considered as an

“implementing strategy” in order to attain the goal of migration. The
goal can be in terms of advancement in education, better job, a nicer
house, a more pleasant environment, etc. It is in this implementing
strategy that migration is selective and more apparent at a certain
age of the life cycle because there is a specific age-group of
population that is more prone to migration (Weeks, 1986:179- 180).

11.3 Trends in Migration

Based on the statistics provided by the International Organization

for Migration, Mobility of people is increasing over time, either
internal or international, migration. In 2009, an estimated 740 million
migration happen without crossing national borders. In 2015, there
are about 244 million people living in a country other than their
country of birth. These figures however remain a slim proportion of
the world population, as these movements constitute only around
12% of the world population (9% for internal migration and 3% for
international migration)

In terms of international migration, the increase in mobility is

notable for the past 4 ½ decades. In 1970, international migrants
were estimated at 84 Million while in 1990 they increase at around
153 million people

Migrants as a % of the
Year Number of migrants
world’s population
1970 84,460,125 2.3%
1975 90,368,010 2.3%
1980 101,983,149 2.3%
1985 113,206,691 2.3%
1990 152,563,212 2.9%
1995 160,801,752 2.8%
2000 172,703,309 2.8%
2005 191,269,100 2.9%
2010 221,714,243 3.2%
2015 246,700,236 3.3%

Europe and Asia catered around 75 million migrants each in the

year 2015. This constitutes 62% of the total global international
migrants. In 2017, it is estimated that there were around 80 million
international migrants residing in Asia, while 78 million Europe. North
America, on the other hand hosted around 54 million international
migrants (58 million in 2017), which constitute 22 % of the total
international migrants, Africa 9 % (25 million in 2017), Latin America

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and the

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Caribbean at 4 % (9.5 million in 2017), and Oceania at 3% (8.4 million in
2017) (IOM, IOM 2018:18). In most countries of Europe, Northern
America and Oceania, international migrants compromised more than
10% of the total population of 2017.

For about 45 years until now, United States of America has been
the main country of destination for international migration. In 1970,
there were around 12 million migrants to the USA. In 2015, it quadrupled
to 46.6 million migrants. Since 2005 onwards, Germany became the
second top destination for migrants, accommodating around 12 million
migrants in 2015. Some other top destination for migrants include
Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, United Kingdom, UAE, Canada,
France, Australia, and Spain

According to IOM’s World Migration Report 2015, nearly 1 in every

5 migrants in the world lives in the top 20 largest cities which include
Sydney, Auckland, Singapore, London, Amsterdam, Frankfurt, and Paris.

Expectedly, migrant distribution is skewed to high-income

countries. About 2/3 of international migrants resided in high-income
countries, around 157 million as of year 2015. Around 77 million
migrants resided in middle-income countries, while only 9 million
migrants resided in low-income countries (IOM, 2018:20). In 2017, these
high-income countries accommodated nearly 165 million of the total
number of international migrants worldwide. According to region, the
south to south migration (migration within developing countries)
continued to grow compared to South-North migration is estimated at
90.2 million, while the south to north migration is calculated at 85.3
million

In 2017, Asia and Europe were the regions of origin with the
largest numbers of international migrants – 106 million and 61 million,
respectively. Latin American and the Caribbean followed with 38 million
and African with 36 million.

Between 2000 and 2017, African experienced the largest relative

increase in the number of international migrants who had originated in
that region (+68%), followed by Asia (+62%), Latin American and the
Caribbean (+52%) and Ocean (+51%)

India has the largest number of person born in the country who
are now living outside its borders. The number of Indian-born persons
residing aboard number 17 million in 2017, ahead of the number of
Mexican-Born persons living outside Mexico (13 million). The Russian
Federation, China, Bangladesh, Syrian Arab Republic, Pakistan and
Ukraine also have large migrant populations living abroad, ranging
from6 to 11 million each (International Migration Report, 2017)

Patterns of Migration

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 Statistics shows that the bulk of Migrants belong to the working
population, i.e. those belong to the ages 15-64. Based on the
estimates of the

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International Organization for Migration, 72% of the international
migrants belong to the working population (IOM, 2018:17). This is not
surprising because as mentioned above, labor is the primary reason for
migration. It is also in the age group when Individual trend to separate
from their parents, have their own lives, and/or look for their own
fortune.

11.4 Special Types of Migrants

Irregular Migrants

As defined above, irregular migrants, also known as

undocumented or illegal migrants, are those who enter a country,
usually in search of employment, without the necessary documents
and permits (Castles, 2000:270). The is usually the case of Labor
migration flows. It is illegal because it does not go through the process of
documentation from country of origin to the country destination. There
are countries, however, which tolerate this country of destination. There
are countries however, which tolerate this practice of migration because
in a way, it “allows Mobilization of labor in response to employer
demands without social costs or measure for protection of migrants
(ibid)”. The evil side of this practice, however, lies on the fact that most
of these irregular migrants are at a high risk of abuses committed by
host country, without the necessary protection from the sending
country.

Migrants in Human Trafficking

Trafficking-in Persons, also known as “Human Trafficking”, is

defined as the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt
of persons, by means of threats, force, coercion, abduction, deception,
abuse of power, etc. For the purpose of exploitation. The End-goal of
these exploitation can be in various manners. Examples are,
Prostitution, Force Labor and slavery, Sex tourism, sexual exploitation,
debt bondages, or pornography. More recent additions to the list are
Force Marriages (How?), and Black-Market Organ Harvesting.

Diaspora and Transnationalism Migrants

Typically, migratory chains are started by an external factor, such

as recruitment or military service, or by an initial movement of young
people pioneers. Once a movement is established, the migrants mainly
follow ‘beaten paths’ (Stahl, 1993; Castles, 2000:272), and are helped
by relatives and the friends already in immigration. Networks based on
family or on common place of origin help provide shelter, work,
assistance with bureaucratic procedures and support in personal

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 Diaspora refers to “people, and often their descendants, from a
specific country who are living abroad” (IOM, 2018:20) It is used
interchangeably with transnational communities, where “migrants may
establish and maintain connections with people in their home
communities or migrants in other countries”. The distinguishing
characteristics of diasporas from other migrant groups in the presence
of strong cultural, historical, religious and affective ties with the country
or community of origin, or a sense of identity and belonging (Vertovec
and Cohen, 1999, as quoted by IOM, ibid; 304)

Refugees and Asylum Seekers

Refugee pertains to any person who, “Owing to well-founded fear

of being persecuted for reason of race, religion, nationality, membership
of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of
his nationality, and is unable or, owing to such fear, is outside the
country of his nationality, and is unable or, owing to such fear, is
unwilling to avail himself of the protection of the country; or who, not
having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual
residence as a result of such events, is unable to, owing to such fear is
unwilling to return to it (1951 UNCHR Convention Relating to the status
of Refugees to be a Refugee).

11.5 Consequences of Migration

Migration Brings forth multiple Benefits. On an Individual’s case it

gives the migrant the chance to work and enhance their skills and
productivity, while giving them a sense of accomplishment and a sense
of purpose. In Familial side it increases the living standards of the
family and/or relatives. This is the usual migration strategy especially
among Filipinos, they may also send a petition to the country of
destination’s government to allow his family to join them there. On
International Scale, this increases productivity as well as increase trade
and other relations between the nations.

The only few consequences of migrations, in both personal and

familial standpoint, are the likelihood of stress and/or disorganization of
daily life. It may also strain Familial bonds because of the distance
between, even thou modern technology lessened the strain there are
some still there. On National Scale, the Home country would have
lessened pool of workforces while the country of destination gets an
increase of work.

Video Link
Migration and Globalization

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 CHAPTER 12

URBANIZATION and GLOBAL CITIES

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Define and enumerate the concept and indicators of urbanization.
2. Trace the development of the cities as well as the process and
pacing of urbanization.
3. Differentiate world class cities, multicultural cities, and
cities of the developing world.

13.1 Concept of Urbanization

Urbanization is defined as the process of gradual shift from agricultural

society to the industrial society with a wide access to information, government
and other institutions, means of transportation, and other manifestations of a
city or urban life. Generally, however, it means the process or rate of
concentration or migration of a population in a particular area.

According to the World Cities Report (2016), more than half of the
world’s population today resides in urban areas. Expectedly, this is the result
of the continuing industrialization, as more and more segment of the
population migrates to urban areas for non-agricultural sources of living. Cities
create wealth, generate employment and drive human progress by harnessing
the forces of agglomeration and industrialization. (Farooq, 2013).

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 Although only 48 percent of its areas are urbanized, Asia has by far the
highest number of people living in urban areas. This is perhaps expected
considering that Asia is the home of 2.11 billion population. Following Asia are
Europe, Africa and Latin America.

Because of the unprecedented increase in urban growth rate, large and

mega cities subsequently emerged. Large cities are those with 5 to 10 million
inhabitants while megacities are those with more than 10 million inhabitants.

13.2 Indicators of Urbanization

a. Continuing industrialization – By industrialization, it means the

proliferation of industries that are basically non-agricultural in nature,
but surely the expansion of establishment aimed at increasing services
for agricultural and non agricultural production.
b. Expanded employment opportunity – This means employment
opportunities bot in formal and informal sectors. Particularly cities are
responsible for generating new private sector jobs. According to World
Cities Report (2018:33), “the 750 cities in the world created 87.7 million
private sector jobs, or 58 percent of all new private sector jobs in 129
countries.” This is between 2006 to 2012.
c. Access to information and communication technology – The fact-paced
environment in the cities of highly urbanized areas is usually driven by
high powered technology to hasten production. Since the goal is mass
production, technology is obviously an important tool to meet the
need of industries and the mass of people.
d. Better infrastructure facilities –In an effort to provide efficient social
services to urban dwellers , and in order to boost economic
production, infrastructure improvement is a must in the urban
environment.

13.3 City Dwellers

Sociologist Herbert Gans as quoted by Ullman (2002:2) identified five

types of people who lives in the city. The first three types live in the city by
choice, finding in it a valued sense of community. The last two have little
choice about where they live.

a. Cosmopolites –these are the students, intellectuals, professionals,

artists and entertainers. They have been drawn to the city because of
its conveniences and cultural benefits.
b. Singles – young unmarried people who come to the cities seeing jobs
and entertainment. Businesses and services such as singes bar,
single apartment complexes, high rise condominiums cater to their
needs.
c. Ethnic villagers – United by race ethnicity and social class, these people
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live in a tightly knit neighborhoods that resemble villages in a small
town. Moving within

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 close circle of family and friends, the ethnic villagers try to isolate
themselves from what they view as the harmful effects of the city
life.
d. Deprived- They live in blighted neighborhoods more of like an urban
jungles than urban villages. Consisting of the very poor, they represent
the bottom of society in terms of income, education, social status, and
work skills.
e. Trapped – they consist of people who could not afford to move
when their neighborhood is invaded by other migrant groups.

13.4 Development of Cities

“Why did cities form in the first place? There is insufficient evidence to
assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, but some theorists have
speculated on what they consider pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that
could explain the rise of cities. Agriculture is believed to be a pre-requisite for
cities, which help preserve surplus production and create economies of scale.
The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic
Revolution, with the spread of agriculture. The advent of farming encouraged
hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and settle near others who
lived by agricultural production. Agriculture yielded more food, which made
denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development.
Farming led to dense, settled populations, and food surpluses that required
storage and could facilitate trade. These conditions seem to be important
prerequisites for city life. Many theorists hypothesize that agriculture preceded
the development of cities and led to their growth.

A good environment and strong social organization are two necessities

for the formation of a successful city. A good environment includes clean water
and a favorable climate for growing crops and agriculture. A strong sense of
social organization helps a newly formed city work together in times of need,
and it allows people to develop various functions to assist in the future
development of the city (for example, farmer or merchant). Without these two
common features, as well as advanced agricultural technology, a newly formed
city is not likely to succeed.

Cities may have held other advantages, too. For example, cities reduced
transport costs for goods, people, and ideas by bringing them all together in
one spot. By reducing these transaction costs, cities contributed to worker
productivity. Finally, cities likely performed the essential function of providing
protection for people and the valuable things they were beginning to
accumulate. Some theorists hypothesize that people may have come together
to form cities as a form of protection against marauding barbarian armies”.
(https://courses.lumenlearning.com )
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13.5 The Process of Urbanization

Urbanization is the process of a population shift from rural areas to

cities. During the last century, global populations have urbanized rapidly:

13% of people lived in urban environments in the year

1900 29% of people lived in urban environments in the

year 1950

One projection suggests that, by 2030, the proportion of people living in cities
may reach 60%.

Urbanization tends to correlate positively with industrialization. With

the promise of greater employment opportunities that come from
industrialization, people from rural areas will go to cities in pursuit of greater
economic rewards.

Another term for urbanization is “rural flight.” In modern times, this

flight often occurs in a region following the industrialization of agriculture—
when fewer people are needed to bring the same amount of agricultural output
to market—and related agricultural services and industries are consolidated.
These factors negatively affect the economy of small- and middle-sized farms
and strongly reduce the size of the rural labor market. Rural flight is
exacerbated when the population decline leads to the loss of rural services
(such as business enterprises and schools), which leads to greater loss of
population as people leave to seek those features.

As more and more people leave villages and farms to live in cities, urban
growth results. The rapid growth of cities like Chicago in the late nineteenth
century and Mumbai a century later can be attributed largely to rural-urban
migration. This kind of growth is especially commonplace in developing
countries.

Urbanization occurs naturally from individual and corporate efforts to

reduce time and expense in commuting, while improving opportunities for
jobs, education, housing, entertainment, and transportation. Living in cities
permits individuals and families to take advantage of the opportunities of
proximity, diversity, and marketplace competition. Due to their high
populations, urban areas can also have more diverse social communities than
rural areas, allowing others to find people like them.
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 Some cities have grown so large and have such influence over a region
that the term “city” is no longer adequate to describe them. The term
metropolis is used instead. This term refers to a central city surrounded by
smaller cities and suburbs.

Another consequence of urbanization is the convergence of people with

diverse cultural background. Sociologists most often call it multi-culturalism or
cultural pluralism, which pertains to a situation where various ethnic groups
converged in amixed ethnic community area resulting to the existence of
multi-cultural traditions, these are called Multi cultural cities.

Challenges and Issues in urbanization

1. Growth of Slums

2. Provision of adequate basic services and infrastructures

3. Climate change

4. Increasing urban divide between the rich and the poor

13.5 The Global City

A global city or world city sometimes called Alpha cities, are a concept
which postulates that globalization can be broken down in terms of strategic
geographic locales that see global processes being created, facilitated, and
enacted. The most complex of these entities is the "global city", whereby the
linkages binding a city have a direct and tangible effect on global affairs
through more than just socio-economic means, with influence in terms of
culture, or politics. The terminology of "global city", as opposed to megacity, is
thought to have been first coined by Saskia Sassen in reference to London,
New York and Tokyo in her 1991 work The Global City. (
https://www.cs.mcgill.ca )

It has been argued that global cities are those sharing the following
characteristics:
(https://www.cs.mcgill.ca )

International, first-name familiarity; whereby a city is recognized without the

need for a political subdivision. For example. although there are numerous
cities and other political entities with the name Paris or variations on it, one
would say "Paris", not "Paris, France".

Active influence and participation in international events and world affairs;

for example, New York City is home to the United Nations headquarters
complex and consequently contains a vast majority of the permanent missions
to the UN.

A large population (the centre of a metropolitan area with a population of at

least one million, typically several million).
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 A major international airport (for example, London Heathrow Airport) that serves as
an established hub for several international airlines.

An advanced transportation system that includes several freeways and/or a

large mass transit network offering multiple modes of transportation (rapid
transit, light rail, regional rail, ferry, or bus).

In the West, several international cultures and communities (such as a

Chinatown, a Little Italy, or other immigrant communities). In other parts of the
world, cities which attract large foreign businesses and related expatriate
communities, for example, Singapore, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Tokyo, and
Moscow.

International financial institutions, law firms, corporate headquarters

(especially conglomerates), and stock exchanges (for example the London
Stock Exchange, the New York Stock Exchange or the Tokyo Stock Exchange)
that have influence over the world economy.

An advanced communications infrastructure on which modern trans-

national corporations rely, such as fiberoptics, Wi-Fi networks, cellular phone
services, and other high-speed lines of communications.

World-renowned cultural institutions, such as museums and universities.

A lively cultural scene, including film festivals (for example the Toronto
International Film Festival), premieres, a thriving music or theatre scene (for
example, West End theatre and Broadway); an orchestra, an opera company,
art galleries, and street performers.

Several powerful and influential media outlets with an international reach,

such as the BBC, Associated Press, Reuters, The New York Times, The Times, or
Agence France- Presse.

A strong sporting community, including major sports facilities, home teams

in major league sports, and the ability and historical experience to host
international sporting events such as the Olympic Games, Football World Cup,
or Grand Slam tennis events.

To some, London, New York City, Paris, and Tokyo have been traditionally
considered the 'big four' world cities – not coincidentally, they also serve as
symbols of global capitalism. However, many people have their own personal
lists, and any two lists are likely to differ based on cultural background, values,
and experience.

In certain countries, the rise of suburbia and the ongoing migration of

manufacturing jobs to these countries has led to significant urban decay.
Therefore, to boost urban regeneration, tourism, and revenue, the goal of
building a "world-class" city has recently become an obsession with the
governments of some mid-size cities and their constituents.

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The phenomenon of world-city building has also been observed in Buenos
Aires, Santiago, Frankfurt, Montréal, Sydney, Mexico City and Toronto: each of
these cities has emerged as large and influential.

Video Link:
What is a Global City?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=dJekil09KA8 Global Cities: Introduction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=bfUH2DKUoeI New Clark City
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=bjuqAH4cf5E

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 .

CHAPTER 13

SOCIAL ISSUES AND PROBLEMS OF URBANIZATION IN A GLOBAL WORLD

Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. differentiate the concepts of social issue and social problem
2. identify emerging social problems in a global world and
determine their causes.
3. Analyze the effects of these social problems and issues to Globalization

A social problem is any condition or behavior that has negative

consequences for large numbers of people and that is generally recognized
as a condition or behavior that needs to be addressed.

A social issue is a problem that influences many citizens within a

society. It is a common problem in present-day society and one that many
people strive to solve. It is often the consequence of factors extending beyond
an individual's control. Social issues are the source of a conflicting opinion on
the grounds of what is perceived as morally correct or incorrect

Four factors have been outlined that seem to characterize a social

issue or problem. These include:

➢ The public must recognize the situation as a problem.

➢ The situation is against the general values accepted by the society.

➢ A large segment of the population recognizes the problem as a valid concern.

➢ The problem can be rectified or alleviated through the joint action

of citizens and/or community resources.

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Common Social Problems and Issues in Globalization

12.1 Global Health Issues including HIV and AIDS

In recent years, cities around the world are seriously disturbed with
communicable health risks such as but not limited to Ebola fever, SARS,
AH1N1, and many others. Just recently added to this is the spread of the New
Corona Virus (NCOV2) which became a Pandemic that locked down almost all
countries all over the world.

State monitoring particularly on returning nationals from abroad was

found to be effective mechanism to prevent the spread of such viruses. But
then in the process of Globalization as people move about so as these health
threat move also thus creating Health problems and social issues among many
countries.

The World Health Organization has released a list of 10 threats to global

health in 2019. They include:

• Air pollution and climate change

• Noncommunicable diseases
• Threat of a global influenza pandemic
• Fragile and vulnerable settings, such as regions affected by drought and conflict
• Antimicrobial resistance
• Ebola and high-threat pathogens
• Weak primary care
• Vaccine hesitancy
• Dengue
• HIV/AIDS

This year the Novel Corona Virus (NCOV 2) is added to the above threats
because it has evolved already into a worldwide pandemic and continue to
wreak havoc not only on health infrastructures but on Economic infrastructures
as well because of lock downs imposed by countries in order to contain its
spread.

12.1.1 WHAT IS HIV?

HIV stands for HUMAN IMMUNODEFFICIENCY VIRUS is a virus that

attacks cells that help the body fight infection, making a person more
vulnerable to other infections and diseases. Without treatment, HIV can
gradually destroy the immune system and advance to AIDS.

AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. AIDS is the most

advanced stage of HIV infection.

The spread of HIV from person to person is called HIV transmission. HIV
is spread only in certain body fluids from a person who has HIV. These body
fluids include Blood, Semen, Pre-seminal fluid, Vaginal fluids, Rectal fluids, and
Breast milk.

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 In the United States, HIV is spread mainly by having anal or vaginal sex
with someone who has HIV without using a condom or taking medicines to
prevent or treat HIV

Sharing injection drug equipment (works), such as needles, with

someone who has HIV, The spread of HIV from a woman with HIV to her child
during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding is called mother-to-child
transmission of HIV.

On the other hand, one CANNOT get HIV by shaking hands or hugging a
person who has HIV and from contact with objects such as dishes, toilet seats,
or doorknobs used by a person with HIV. HIV is not spread through the air or in
water or by mosquitoes, ticks, or other blood-sucking insects.

Within 2 to 4 weeks after infection with HIV, some people may have
flu-like symptoms, such as fever, chills, or rash. The symptoms may last for
a few days to several weeks. During this earliest stage of HIV infection, the
virus multiplies rapidly.

After the initial stage of infection, HIV continues to multiply but at very low
levels.
More severe symptoms of HIV infection, such as signs of opportunistic
infections, generally don’t appear for many years.

A person can reduce the risk of being infected with the following guidelines:

➢ Use condoms correctly every time you have sex.

➢ Limit your number of sexual partners.

➢ Never share injection drug equipment.

HIV medicines, given to women with HIV during pregnancy and childbirth
and to their babies after birth, reduce the risk of mother-to-child
transmission of HIV

Infection with HIV/AIDS leads to numerous bodily, mental and social

issues that affect the individual and impacts on their families and communities
at large. The impact of the HIV treatment is further aggravated by other
factors such as worry about employment, sexuality, the prospects of
relationships, and the social reactions of other community members. Another
impact of HIV is the stigma and discrimination against persons living with
HIV/AIDS. Apart from having to endure treatment with severe side- effects,
they constantly must cope with rejection and social discrimination.
(https://nursinganswers.net)

Video Link:
Positive/Negative: HIV & AIDS in the Philippines
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SQmysmzZvVw

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12.2 Sex and Gender Discrimination

The distinction between sex and gender differentiates a person's

biological sex (the anatomy of an individual's reproductive system, and
secondary sex characteristics) from that person's gender, which can refer to
either social roles based on the sex of the person (gender role) or personal
identification of one's own gender based on an internal awareness.

Sex often refers to what doctors (and society) assign a person at birth
based on their genitals. So, the division become binary referring to being
Male or Female. While sex is often based on biology, gender is a social
construct.

According to the World Health organization, Gender as a social

construction includes norms, behaviors and roles associated with being a
woman, man, girl or boy, as well as relationships with each other. As a social
construct, gender varies from society to society and can change over time.
Because there are more than two genders, it therefore not binary but instead
it is a spectrum. Below are the most popular gender description in this
spectrum.

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 Gender or sex as classification is hierarchical and produces inequalities
that intersect with other social and economic inequalities. Gender-based
discrimination intersects with other factors of discrimination, such as
ethnicity, socio-economic status, disability, age, geographic location, gender
identity and sexual orientation, among others.

Gender or sex discrimination occurs when a person is subjected to

different or unequal treatment ("discrimination") in any number of situations,
when that treatment is based on the person's gender.

Sex discrimination - refers to discrimination based on the biological

differences between male and female.

Gender discrimination - refers to discrimination based on social behavior

such as nonconformance of gender roles including sexual orientation and
gender identity discrimination.

Gender and sex discrimination can take place in many different

settings, but typically occurs most often in the following situations:

a. Workplace- Gender discrimination may be direct or indirect.

Direct gender discrimination is when an employee is treating
unfavorably because of their gender. Indirect gender
discrimination can occur if employers or managers hold
assumptions about what sort of work women and men are
capable, or not capable, of doing.
b. Education - When a child is treated less favorably on the grounds
of gender, sexual orientation. Sometimes they are not given
equal opportunity and treatment because of the sex or gender. In
some regions, boys’ educational opportunities are limited by
gender roles that force them to work rather than attend school.
These financial responsibilities are often increased in boys’
adolescent years, making it difficult for them to complete
secondary school in some regions. However, in many parts of the
world, girls are most often the victims of gender discrimination as
they pursue an education.
c. Household – when male children are given more opportunities
than their sisters. Sometimes this takes the form of giving more
household chores to female children while those having other
genders such as gays or lesbians are looked down upon or
totally become unaccepted.

Gender stereotypes is a generalized view or preconception about

attributes or characteristics, or the roles that are or ought to be possessed by,
or performed by women and men. A gender stereotype is harmful when it
limits women’s and men’s capacity to develop their personal abilities, pursue
their professional careers and make choices about their lives.

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 Gender equality is a human right, but our world faces a persistent gap
in access to opportunities and decision-making power for women and men.

Globally, women have fewer opportunities for economic participation

than men, less access to basic and higher education, greater health and safety
risks, and less political representation.

Guaranteeing the rights of women and giving them opportunities to

reach their full potential is critical not only for attaining gender equality, but
also for meeting a wide range of international development goals. Empowered
women and girls contribute to the health and productivity of their families,
communities, and countries, creating a ripple effect that benefits everyone.

Video Link:

Gender Stratification: Crash Course

Sociology #32

https://www.youtube.com/watch?

12. 3 Climate Change

Weather, state of the atmosphere at a particular place during a short

period of time. It involves such atmospheric phenomena as temperature,
humidity, precipitation (type and amount), air pressure, wind, and cloud
cover.

Climate describes the average weather of a particular part of the

world at different times of the year.

Climate change is the long-term shift in average weather patterns

across the world. Since the mid-1800s, humans have contributed to the
release of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the air. This causes
global temperatures to rise, resulting in long-term changes to the climate. (Met
College, 2016)

12.3.1 What are the causes?

a. SOLAR VARIABILITY- The luminosity, or brightness, of the Sun has

been increasing steadily since its formation. This phenomenon is
important to Earth’s climate, because the Sun provides the energy to
drive atmospheric circulation and constitutes the input for Earth’s
heat budget. Low solar luminosity during

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 Precambrian time underlies the faint young Sun paradox, described
in the section Climates of early Earth.
b. HUMAN ACTIVITIES- Recognition of global climate change as an
environmental issue has drawn attention to the climatic impact of
human activities. Most of this attention has focused on carbon dioxide
emission via fossil-fuel combustion and deforestation. Human activities
also yield releases of other greenhouse gases, such as methane (from
rice cultivation, livestock, landfills, and other sources) and
chlorofluorocarbons (from industrial sources). There is little doubt
among climatologists that these greenhouse gases affect the radiation
budget of Earth; the nature and magnitude of the climatic response are
a subject of intense research activity.
c. GREENHOUSE GASES- It is a gas that contributes to the greenhouse
effect by absorbing infrared radiation, e.g., carbon dioxide and
chlorofluorocarbons. When greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide
build in the atmosphere, they act like a blanket around the earth. When
sunlight (ultraviolet radiation) hits this blanket, it passes straight
through and continues until it reaches the surface of the planet.

12.3. 2 Effects of Climate Change

Global climate change has already had observable effects on the

environment. Glaciers have shrunk, ice on rivers and lakes is breaking
up earlier, plant and animal ranges have shifted and trees are flowering
sooner.

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12.3.3 Possible Solutions

United Nations legal

instruments

A. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCC)

-"International environmental treaty negotiated at the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED),
informally known as the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to
14 June 1992."
- It has no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for
individual countries. No enforcement mechanism.
-The treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific
international treaties (called "protocols") that may set binding limits
on greenhouse gases.

B. Kyoto Protocol
-Is an international agreement that called for industrialized
nations to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions significantly.
-"Kyoto" because it was adopted in Kyoto, Japan in 1997,
when greenhouse gases were rapidly threatening our climate.
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 C. Paris Agreement
“At COP 21 in Paris, on 12 December 2015, Parties to the UNFCCC
reached a landmark agreement to combat climate change and to
accelerate and intensify the actions and investments needed for a
sustainable low carbon future.”
“The Paris Agreement’s central aim is to strengthen the global
response to the threat of climate change by keeping a global
temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-
industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase
even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius. Additionally, the agreement aims to
increase the ability of countries to deal with the impacts of climate
change, and at making finance flows consistent with a low GHG
emissions and climate-resilient pathway. To reach these ambitious
goals, appropriate mobilization and provision of financial resources, a
new technology framework and enhanced capacity-building is to be put
in place, thus supporting action by developing countries and the most
vulnerable countries, in line with their own national objectives. The
Agreement also provides for an enhanced transparency framework for
action and support.” (https://unfccc.int)
Video Link:
What is Climate Change? | Start
Here

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