SOUTHERN CROSS COLLEGE

General Language
Booklet

Grade 8
2
Parts of Speech

NOUN
Naming word. Names people, places, things, groups, qualities and ideas.
Common noun: Name given to all members of a group or set
One of many
E.g. dog, cat, scissors, trees
Proper noun: Names particular people, places and things.
Always has a capital letter.
E.g. Dr Johnson, The Hilton Hotel, Great Expectations
Collective noun: Group or set of people or things.
E.g. team, flock, audience, pack, herd
Abstract noun: Things that cannot be recognised by the five senses, but only by the mind.
E.g. courage, delight, fear, misery, excitement, distress, possibility

PRONOUN
Can replace a noun in a sentence. Position in the sentence will be similar to that of a noun.
Personal: refers to people and things – I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they
Relative: refers to people or things already mentioned in a previous clause in the sentence – who,
which, that
E.g. John, who is six, likes to talk.
Demonstrative: points out certain nouns or pronouns – this, that, these, such
E.g. This is the train to Cape Town. That is the wrong platform.
Interrogative: asks questions – who, what, whose, which
E.g. Who paid the money? Which cd did you choose?
Possessive: indicate ownership – mine, yours, ours, theirs
E.g. The red car is mine. The blue one is theirs.
Reflexive: refers back to the subject of the sentence – herself, themselves
E.g. She gave herself a severe talking to. I stopped myself from staring.
Indefinite: refers to people or things not exactly defined as to number – some, none, several,
anyone
E.g. Is anyone interested in sailing? Several children responded.

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ADJECTIVE
Describing word that gives us more information about nouns / pronouns to make their meaning
more exact. Usually placed immediately in front of the noun / pronoun:
E.g. A broken bottle / second thoughts / beautiful people

ADVERB
Gives us more information about the verb. Most adverbs end –ly. Tells us how, where, when, why
or to what extent something was done:
E.g. He spoke incoherently. / We usually go after school.

PREPOSITION
Linking words that show the relationship between two nouns / pronouns – about, above, across,
under, until, up, on, off, over etc.
E.g. The train went through the tunnel.

CONJUCTION
Connect parts of a sentence – and, because, but, for, since, yet, until etc.
E.g. Both pointers and spaniels are gun dogs. / Not only Jenny but also Sarah plays the piano.

INTERJECTION
Group of words with no grammatical function. Interjections are merely expressions, usually of some
emotion:
E.g. Oh no! Ha! Phew! Shame! Drat!

ARTICLES
An article is a short word that refers to and introduces a noun. There are three articles in the
English language: a, an and the.
Indefinite Article: 'a' and 'an' are indefinite articles. They refer to, or introduce, an unspecified
noun. We use an indefinite article in front of a noun when we're not referring to a particular person,
place, thing or idea.
E.g. ‘A squirrel came into the class’ doesn’t refer to a specific squirrel. It could have been any squirrel.
Definite Article: ‘The’ is the only definite article in English. It refers to, or introduces, a particular,
specific noun.
E.g. ‘The squirrel came into the class’ refers to a specific squirrel.
E.g. If I said: “Meet me at the school gate.” You would know which gate I was referring to. On the
other hand, if I said: “Meet me at a school gate.” I could be referring to any school gate and you
wouldn’t know where to meet me.

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SUFFIX
Group of letters with definite function (usually denoting part of speech) placed at the end of a root
word:
E.g. coverage; mentally; thinking

PREFIX
Group of letters with definite meaning placed in front of a root word:
E.g. antiseptic / biography / prejudge

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VERBS
Verbs are fundamental to our ability to construct grammatically correct sentences. If you learn them
properly early on, your life will be much easier in the future.
Basic definition: A verb is a ‘doing’ or ‘action’ word. But beware: the state of existing is an action,
so watch out for words like is, am etc. So, verbs are words that tell us what is being done, the
movement of something or they tell us about the state of existence/being of something.
They can be divided into two broad groups: finite and non-finite. See the table below.

1. FINITE VERBS
Finite verbs show either action, or state of being (stative verbs). They can either stand on their
own, or are made up of an auxiliary verb + a participle, which together form the finite verb in the
sentence or clause.
A finite verb:
• Has a subject
• Shows number (singular or plural), e.g. The girl plays hockey.
The girls play hockey.
• Shows tense (past, present or future), e.g. Today I sing. Yesterday I sang.
• Together with the subject, makes a complete sentence, e.g. She plays. They fight.
E.g. I live in France. – single finite verb
I have lived in France. – auxiliary verb ‘have’ and past participle ‘lived’ together form the finite
verb.
I = subject

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Stative or Linking Verbs
These are a type of finite verb, and tell us the STATE OF BEING of something.
*** A stative verb links the subject with a noun or adjective. ***
They are NOT about actions or movements = they are different,
E.g. I am tired (state = tired)
I have two children (state = mother)
I like the colour blue (state = blue is favoured)
The most common stative verbs are: is, am, are, were, will be, shall, have had, be etc. [Don’t forget:
I shall, we shall, everybody else will!]

2. NON-FINITE VERBS
These cannot stand alone. A verb is non-finite (incomplete) when it doesn’t have a specific subject,
tense, number.
We get three forms of infinite verbs: auxiliary verbs, participles (past and present), and infinitive
verbs.

Auxiliary or Helping Verbs

These verbs do not explain an action or movement. It helps the participle in the sentence, and
regulates the tense of the sentence.
*** An auxiliary verb always links the subject with a participle. ***
Notice, that stative verbs become auxiliary verbs when they are linking a subject with a participle, rather
than linking a subject with a noun or adjective.
E.g.: They are going to town. [are is the auxiliary verb and going is the infinite verb]
He is walking down the road. [is is the auxiliary verb and walking is the infinite verb]
We could see the sun rising. [could is the auxiliary verb and see is the finite verb]
Some common auxiliary verbs: am, are, be, can, could, had, has, have, is, may, might, must, shall,
should, was, were, will, would
Beware! The verb must precede a participle in order to be an auxiliary verb.
E.g.: He is the president of his company. [finite stative verb]
He is hoping to become the president of his company. [auxiliary verb + present participle]

The Participle
These take the form of the present or past participle (which in normal English means the present
or the past tense of the verb). It MUST be preceded by an auxiliary verb.
Think of a participle as a verb that PARTICIPATES with an auxiliary verb.
E.g.: He is [auxiliary] swinging [present participle] on his chair.

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 Clouds had [auxiliary] formed [past participle] before the storm.
Present participles end in -ing [e.g. walking, talking]
Past participles often end in -ed [e.g. talked, walked], but there are too many exceptions (swum,
spoken, slept etc.) to make this a rule.

The Infinitive
This is the basic form of the verb. It must always have “to” in front of it. It MUST be preceded by a
finite verb somewhere in the sentence.
E.g.: She wants [finite] to discuss [infinitive] something.
**The infinitive should not be split:
E.g.: I am going to definitely complete my work tomorrow. [WRONG! Split infinitive]
I am definitely going to complete my work tomorrow. [RIGHT!]

GRADE 9
TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS
A verb can be described as transitive or intransitive based on whether it requires an object to
express a complete thought or not.
A transitive verb is one that only makes sense if it exerts its action on an object.
An intransitive verb will make sense without one.
Some verbs may be used both ways.

To remember the difference, associate transitive with transfer. A transitive verb needs to
transfer its action to something or someone – an object. An intransitive verb, therefore does
not need to transfer its action.
E.g. He threw the ball.
The verb is ‘threw’. If we don’t state what was thrown the sentence doesn’t make sense.
More examples:
The girls carry water to their village. / Could you phone the neighbours?
I caught a cold. / Lila conveyed the message.

An intransitive verb is the opposite of a transitive verb: it does not require an object to act upon.
E.g. They jumped. / The dog ran. / She sang. / A light was shining.

None of these verbs require an object for the sentence to make sense, and all of them can end a
sentence.

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 TENSES
THERE ARE THREE BASIC TENSES OF VERB:
present, past and future (i.e. when the action takes place).
• Present (today): verb I paint a picture
• Past (yesterday): verb + ed I painted a picture
• Future (tomorrow): will/shall + verb I shall paint a picture
Remember: I shall, we shall, everybody else will!

But, there’s more to it. A slightly more detailed analysis of tense:

CONTINUOUS PERFECT
SIMPLE PERFECT
CONTINUOUS
(at the moment /
(generally) (already completed)
ongoing) (continues up until a point)
Present I drive I am driving I have driven I have been driving
Past I drove I was driving I had driven I had been driving
Future I shall drive I shall be driving I shall have driven I will have been driving

Past and present simple tenses have simple finite verbs. In other words, they do not have an auxiliary
verbs or participles – just finite action or stative verbs.
Future simple tense has just ONE future tense auxiliary verb. Future continuous and perfect
tenses will have TWO auxiliary verbs.
All the continuous tenses are formed when there is an auxiliary verb plus a present participle.
Whether it is ‘present’, ‘past’, or ‘future’ continuous tense depends on the auxiliary verb.
All perfect tenses are formed when there is an auxiliary verb plus a past participle. Again, whether
it is ‘present’, ‘past’, or ‘future’ perfect tense depends on the auxiliary verb.
All perfect continuous tenses are formed when there is an auxiliary verb plus ‘been’, followed
by a present participle. Whether it is ‘present’, ‘past’, or ‘future’ perfect continuous tense depends
on the auxiliary verb.

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Exercise:
Write your own simple tense sentence.
From that sentence create past, present, and future continuous and perfect sentences.

Simple present tense sentence:

Simple past tense sentence:

Simple future tense sentence:

Present continuous sentence:

Past continuous sentence:

Future continuous sentence:

Present perfect sentence:

Past perfect sentence:

Future perfect sentence:

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Types of Language
On your high school journey, you will learn that language is a very powerful tool. It can be used
negatively and positively.
We need to understand that there are many different types of language that we as writers and the
studiers of the language need to know:
Denotation & Connotation
Factual & Emotive
Formal & Informal
Literal & Figurative

DENOTATION & CONNOTATION

1. Denotation is a literal meaning or the dictionary definition. It's exactly what you say.
2. Connotation is when you mean something else or when something might be hidden.
Connotation refers to the wide array of positive and negative associations that most words
naturally carry with them.

FACTUAL & EMOTIVE LANGUAGE

1. Factual language
A plain fact is stated: this is the purpose or intention behind a great deal of language.
It makes statements or gives facts and information.
Scientific and technical language falls into this category.
E.g. An advert will have scientific and technical information about the product that it is advertising.
If the product is a car, it might include facts like: ABS brakes, torque of the car, etc.

2. Emotive language
Expresses an opinion or a feeling through language. It will display how someone feels and thinks
about a certain situation, person, event etc.
E.g. Mary is an insipid-looking creature.
This gives us very little information about Mary – but a good deal about the way the speaker feels
about Mary.
E.g. In an advert it might claim: “Omo is the best washing powder!”
This is an opinion – people might agree with that statement or they may disagree with that
statement.
Expresses a desire or instruction.
This is language where the speaker is trying to get someone to do something. Invariably this
type of language will evoke a feeling of some sorts – e.g.: happy to carry out the request, boredom,
irritation etc. The intention behind this language to evoke a response.
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One other ‘type of language’ that we need to think about is:
3. Social Etiquette
Some language is not used to give information nor to express a feeling, but to communicate with
people generally. It is similar to a smile or a friendly gesture.
E.g. Lovely weather we are having.

FORMAL & INFORMAL LANGUAGE

Language is like clothing: we dress in a certain way for certain occasions.

1. Formal Language
Formal language is used in certain arenas where it is necessary to be polite, well-mannered.
In writing it is used when we are addressing a particular point or situation. It is precise and
constructed. No slang or abbreviations may be used in formal language.
Sentencing and grammar must be perfect.
No exaggerated punctuation may be used.
E.g. Business letter

2. Informal Language
Is relaxed and the type of language you would use with people that you are familiar with. It is friendly
and conversational.
We get three very distinct types of informal language.
1. Slang
2. Colloquial Language
3. Jargon

SLANG COLLOQUIAL LANGUAGE

Words and phrases that are used in very This is ordinary, everyday speech – but do not
informal situations. get confused between colloquial language and
slang
It is normally used by a specific group of people Colloquial language is more widely understood
– i.e.: JHB slang will be very different to Durban by people and does not change from generation
slang. to generation.
Slang can add a lot of colour to certain It can be understood by a variety of people no
conversations and will differ depending on what matter their age or sex. It can depend on
situation the speakers find themselves in. culture or country

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 Slang can help in the construction of a character E.g.: braai – South Africa
and a setting in literature forms i.e.: novels, Barbeque – in the USA
plays, films, poems etc

Slang is continually changing and will differ from

generation to generation, gender group and
geographical area.

3. Jargon
Jargon also fits into informal language; however, it is more specific to a particular area of thought. It
is the name we give to special words, terms and expressions used by a specific group of people.
It is the language (‘lingo’) used by different professions, trades, sports etc.
E.g. Computer Jargon – mouse, byte, download
Golf Jargon – birdie, albatross, 19th hole

LITERAL & FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE

1. Literal Language
Literal language means exactly what it says.
E.g. “He died of a heart attack” tells us precisely how the person died. The sentence means what it
says.

2. Figurative Language
Figurative Language uses similes, metaphors, hyperbole, and personification
to describe something often through comparison with something
different. It, therefore, uses words in a way that deviates from their conventionally accepted
definitions in order to convey a more complicated meaning or heightened effect. Figurative language
is often created by presenting words in such a way that they are equated, compared, or associated
with normally unrelated meanings.
E.g. “I died of embarrassment” is figurative language (hyperbole, in this case), because you didn’t
actually die. You were just extremely embarrassed.

GRADE 8
PUN (one or a few words)
A pun is a technique that we use in language that helps to add more ‘colour’ to our writing. In some
cases it helps to create a tone in our writing.
• It is one or a few words in a sentence that create 2 or more meanings
• The two meanings can be created by
a) Associations
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 b) Sounds the same (homonyms and homophones)
c) Pictures – this is called a visual pun.
• Therefore, creating humour or sarcasm.
• The intention is to make people laugh or draw attention to a specific idea.
• So obviously it is a technique that we will use in cartoons, adverts.
• We call a pun a literary device.

Where is the pun in the cartoon on the left?

Look at these jokes and highlight the pun in each of them:

1. I wondered why the baseball was getting bigger. Then
it hit me.
2. I couldn't quite remember how to throw a boomerang,
but eventually it came back to me.
3. Did you hear about the guy whose whole left side was
cut off? He's all right now.

Associations and sounds that create puns:

1. To write with a broken pencil is pointless.
2. A bicycle can’t stand by itself because it is two-tired.
3. Maths teachers have lots of problems.
4. I should have been sad when my flashlight batteries died – but I was delighted.

Pictures that create puns:

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Puns are often created with the help of:
HOMONYMS
These are words that:
1. Sound the same
2. Are spelt the same
3. But have different meanings
E.g. bill – name, account, mouth of a duck

SYNONYMS
These are words of similar meaning:
E.g. big – huge, gigantic, enormous

ANTONYMS
These are words of opposite meaning:
E.g. light – dark; big – small, top – bottom

HOMOPHONES
These are words that:
1. Sound the same
2. Are spelt differently
3. Have different meanings
E.g. meet – meat; beat – beet

AMBIGUITY (sentence)
Is a technique that is used in creative writing; however, often ambiguity is not intentional and caused
by:
• incorrect punctuation
• shortening of sentences
• mis-use of language.
What is ambiguity?
We have a sentence and because of the incorrect use of language or the deliberate double meaning
– the entire sentence has two meanings.
In other words:
• Ambiguity is when we have a sentence that has two or more meanings!
• It can create humour
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 • But it can also create confusion for a reader
• Ambiguity often occurs in newspaper headlines
Look at this sentence:
"I pulled into a garage with smoke coming from under the bonnet of the car. I realised the car was
on fire so took my dog and smothered it with a blanket."
In the second sentence, it’s ambiguous as to whether the dog was smothered or the fire was
smothered.
Explain the ambiguity in this story:
1. The baby did not like its food so the mother threw it away.
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. A label on the side of a pack a knives that have been imported from China says: “Keep out
the children”
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

IDIOMS
A set of words that have a meaning literally and figuratively; however, the figurative meaning is the
one that we understand.
Let’s recap literal and figurative language.

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You must understand that idioms are figurative and that is how we need to understand them. They
have an entirely different literal meaning. It makes writing more vivid and often has a moral behind
it.
E.g: You can take a horse to water but you can’t make it drink.

Idioms are very common in the English language.

They are often used as a way of summarising a situation or giving advice.

RHETORICAL QUESTION
A rhetorical question is asked just for effect – to emphasis some point being discussed, when no
real answer is expected. This emphasis is generally the result of the answer being obvious answer.
In literature, a rhetorical question is self-evident, and used for style as an impressive persuasive
device.
E.g. “Who knows?” / “Are you stupid?” / “Why not?”
Mostly, it is easy to spot a rhetorical question because of its position in the sentence. It occurs
immediately after a comment made, and states the opposite of it. The idea again is to make a point
more prominent.
E.g. “It’s too hot today, isn’t it?”
“The actors played the roles well, didn’t they?”

Examples of Rhetorical Question in Literature:

1) Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) Here, Juliet makes a statement that a man’s
name does not define him as a person. She draws attention to this issue by asking two important
rhetorical questions, as noted in bold.
’Tis but thy name that is my enemy.
Thou art thyself, though not a Montague.
What’s Montague? It is nor hand, nor foot,
Nor arm, nor face, nor any other part
Belonging to a man. O, be some other name!
What’s in a name? That which we call a rose
By any other name would smell as sweet.
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2) The Merchant of Venice (By William Shakespeare)
SHYLOCK:
“If you prick us, do we not bleed?
If you tickle us, do we not laugh?
If you poison us, do we not die?
And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge?”

SIMILES
When two things are compared using ‘like’, ‘as’ or ‘than’:
E.g. My dog is as smelly as dirty socks.
As wise as an owl.

METAPHORS
Unlike a simile, a metaphor is the direct comparison (doesn’t use ‘like’ or ‘as’) of two unlike things.
E.g. Until she gets a job, she’s just chipping away at her savings.
Time, you thief.
Life is a journey.
All the world is a stage.

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PERSONIFICATION
Giving human qualities to objects or animals:
E.g. The lightning danced across the sea.
The stars winked at me.

IRONY
There are two types of irony:
1. Opposite result
A situation in which something which was intended to have a particular result has the opposite or a
very different result.
E.g. He noted the irony that the weapons were now being used against the country that produced
them.
The irony is that his mistake will actually improve the team's situation.
2. Type of speech
The use of words that are the opposite of what you mean, often as a way of being funny:
E.g. Her voice heavy with irony, Simone said, "We're so pleased you were able to stay so long."
(Her voice made it obvious they were not pleased.)

SARCASM
The use of remarks that clearly mean the opposite of what they say, like irony, but unlike irony, they
are made in order to hurt someone's feelings or to criticise something in a humorous way:
E.g. "You have been working hard," he said with heavy sarcasm, as he looked at the empty page.

CLICHÉ
Clichés are phrases or opinions that are overused and shows a lack of original thought. When first
used, they were likely considered meaningful or novel, but due to their appeal, people have used
these phrases repeatedly over time, so that their initial appeal has died. Avoid them wherever
possible; instead demonstrate your creativity and originality by thinking up your own interesting
comparisons, descriptions and phrases to keep your writing fresh and interesting.
E.g. “avoid them like the plague.”
“Thinking outside the box”
“Raining cats and dogs”
“Everything but the bathroom sink”
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GRADE 9
OXYMORON
Oxymoron: words which seem to contradict one another placed alongside one another.
E.g. pretty ugly / big shrimp / little giant

ANTITHESIS
Antithesis is the opposition, or contrast of ideas or words in a balanced or parallel construction.
E.g. (from Julius Caesar: Shakespeare)
Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more.

PARADOX
A paradox is an assertion seemingly opposed to common sense, but that may yet have some truth
in it.
(or, an easier way to understand it…):
A puzzling self-contradiction, frequently an impossible conundrum. Almost like untangling a riddle.
E.g. You can save money by spending it.
I know one thing; that I know nothing.
This is the beginning of the end.
Deep down, you're really shallow.
I'm a compulsive liar.
“Men work together whether they work together or apart.” - Robert Frost
"What a pity that youth must be wasted on the young." - George Bernard Shaw
"I can resist anything but temptation." - Oscar Wilde

Recap: Difference Between Oxymoron, Paradox and Antithesis

It is important to understand the difference between the three seeming contradictions: oxymoron,
paradox and antithesis.
An antithesis is a contrast or opposition to something else. Usually, you have a thesis and the
antithesis is the contrast or opposition to the thesis. Although two contrasting ideas are placed
alongside each other, they do not contradict, or seemingly contradict each other.
A paradox is a seeming self-contradiction. It may consist of a sentence, or even a group of sentences,
and although seems contradictory to the general truth, it does contain an implied truth,
and makes sense on further reflection.
An oxymoron is a word/phrase that signifies two contradictory meanings. It is a direct
combination of two contradictory or opposite words. An oxymoron may produce a dramatic
effect, but, unlike a paradox, does not make literal sense.

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Intention, Style and Tone

This section of language is so important! You will use it in almost all the language that is tested
except grammar.
It forms a very important part of your transactional writing section too!

INTENTION
• A writer has a particular purpose in mind.
• He sets out to achieve something.
• His intention will determine the type of language that he uses.

STYLE
• This tells us about the writer’s manner of expression – how he writes.
• Each writer will have a unique, individual style.
• It is like wearing clothes; we each have our own idea of what to wear.
• Think of style as wearing formal or informal clothing – you can write informally or formally.

TONE
• Writers have different feelings about what they are writing about.
• It is linked with the writers’ attitude towards the text and his readers.

Remember that these three things are very closely linked.

If a writer’s intention is to entertain he might use a light hearted and humorous tone.
And his style might be slightly informal

REGISTER
• The manner in which you say something.
E.g. you would not speak to your bank manager and your best friend in the same manner.
Register = the appropriate use of language in a particular situation, which means you
have the ability to use the correct:
INTENTION + STYLE + TONE
in a specific situation.

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GRADE 9
BIAS AND PREJUDICE
Prejudice is a preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience. In other words,
it is a ‘pre-judgement’ of someone or something. Thus, to be prejudiced is to favour, lean towards
or sympathise with a particular person or group.
Bias and prejudice are very similar; however, bias is to favour one thing over another, and doesn’t
has as negative a connotation. Whereas prejudice has negative connotations due to it being
associated with an unjustified active judgement.
You can be prejudiced / biased towards or against something. These opinions are most often based
on emotions, rather than fact or evidence. Biased writers present only one point of view. It is not
balanced, and the intention is often to manipulate.

STEREOTYPE
A stereotype is a generalised image or set of characteristics that a lot of people believe represent a
particular type of person or thing. Stereotyping is a way of categorising or labelling people we meet,
based on how they look, speak, talk, dress, etc. It assumes certain things about people (whether
true or not) based on a set of generalisations.
E.g. All blondes are dumb;
Women are bad drivers;
Men can’t multitask
To stereotype is to pre-judge someone and rank them on a scale of worthiness, relevance or
desirability according to your own prejudices.
Some people hold on to gender stereotypes which specify which jobs they think women are capable
of doing, and which professions should best be left to men.
Some people also hold on to racial stereotypes which cause people to act in a dismissive or
condescending way towards those who they perceive to be inferior to them, based on race.
These stereotypes can limit us in our self-perception and life choices. Many people use stereotyping
as a form of humour, but stereotyping also has a dark side. When it is built on racism or sexism, it
is a form of prejudice and can be offensive.

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Summary – The Basics
When writing a summary you are taking a piece of writing and compacting it to be more effective
or more directed to someone or something specific!
Do not change the content of the passage. It is like a recipe: you are given the recipe for
chocolate brownies – if you change any of the contents – you will not be successful in making them!

Why do you need to learn about summary?

1. It is a life skill.
2. They are part of your life that you use every day.
3. Newspapers, sports reports, news bulletins.
4. Film reviews.

How do we do it?
1. Read the instructions.
2. Read the passage.
3. Underline the information that is relevant to the instructions.
4. List the main points.
5. Write a rough draft.
6. Too few words = you have left something out.
Too many = you have included too much.
(IT IS LOGICAL!)
7. Write a neat copy.
8. Add your word count.
9. Check instructions again to make sure you have done everything you need to!
10. Anything more than 10 words over the word count is not looked at, and it limits the mark you
can receive.

IMPORTANT THINGS ABOUT SUMMARY

1. We get two types of summary that you can be tested on:
Point Form (less common) Paragraph Form
• You will be told how many points are • Will indicate how many paragraphs you will
needed need to write
• Number each point carefully • You will be asked to summaries with a
specific purpose in mind. Eg: the advantages,
for a particular age group

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 • Include on the relevant information • Keep your information relevant to the
instruction given.
• Do not include examples • Register for a particular audience is
important.
• Do not include quotations • You can also be asked to summaries for
something specific eg: a DVD cover, a blurb,
a letter etc.
• Do not include statistics • Word count needed
• Include word count

All of these factors will determine the style & format of your summary.

RULES OF SUMMARY
1. Do not change the meaning of the passage.
2. It must be written in the learner’s own words – lifting will mean that you will fail!
3. Keep your sentences simple and well-constructed.
4. Must be written in full sentences – make sure that the flow of your summary allows it to flow
and be logical.
5. Read the instructions that the examiner is asking you! Make sure of the requirements – number
of words, need a title etc.
6. Formal language – no slang, informal language etc!
7. Please remember that I am testing your ability to summarize the passage that you are given.
That’s all!
8. Remember to write how many words you have used at the end of your passage.
9. Remember that if you are asked to give you summary a heading – it must be included in your
word count.
10. Contractions may be used if they have been used in the original version.
11. Do not write in the 1st person (I, we) even if the original is in the 1st person. Summaries must be
written in the 3rd person.
WHAT TO LEAVE OUT
1. Unnecessary decorative words (adverbs and adjectives)
2. Words that have been repeated
3. Personal opinions
4. Direct speech
5. Examples
6. Figures of speech

24
VISUAL LITERACY

CARTOONS
Cartoons can have many different forms:
1. Strip of humorous pictures – in a magazine or newspaper.
2. Can be a single picture.
3. An entire book.
4. Can even be a film made by a succession of drawings.
Whatever form the cartoon takes – the point of a cartoon is to convey a message.
A cartoon is often based on preconceived ideas. This influences how we read them, because we
cannot forget what we know. We need to be aware that our ideas will influence our interpretations.

Cartoons will normally:

1. Convey a joke.
2. Raise various issues about life.
3. Create or recreate minor events that have taken place – showing the humour in these
instances.
Cartoons are read and seen, they are not heard! Therefor it is difficult to decipher tone.
Remember that when you study a cartoon – you are looking at both the visual and the
written aspect of the cartoon!

What helps to get the message across?

ANGLES, SHOTS AND LIGHTING
How the picture is drawn is important – how the lighting is drawing will help with expression and
getting an emotion to make sense to the reader – or to help create a setting.
SETTING
The setting will help the reader to understand the meaning of the cartoon. It might be in the city,
or in the country or in a specific venue that will help with the idea behind the poem.
The setting is usually created by something famous in that area.
E.g.: the sea, Cape Town – Table Mountain.
SPEECH BUBBLES
This is where the dialogue of the cartoon is written.
The shape of the speech bubble will indicate tone.
The thickness of the writing in the speech bubble will also indicate tone.
E.g.: a) A jagged edge speech bubble will indicate an announcement or anger.
b) Where a rounded bubble speech bubble will indicate dreaming or thinking.
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RELATIONSHIPS
This is the relationship that exists between characters in the cartoon. The distance that they are
from each other will often indicate the relationship that they share.
COLOUR
Colours are important in a cartoon because they convey feeling or mood. They can generally be
described as being warm or cold – and they can have certain symbolic values.
E.g. white – peace; red – love or anger; black – danger, evil or fear; purple – royalty; green –
nature, growth, newness
SCALE
Characters or objects can be drawn bigger or smaller in a cartoon to help emphasise a point.
E.g. superiority, inferiority
KINETIC STRIPES
Lines in a cartoon are used to indicate movement. The more lines there are the greater the
movement. Some of these lines have been given special names:
E.g. a) dites – diagonal lines used to indicate mirrors or glass
b) vites – horizontal lines used to indicate water or a polished floor
c) swaloops – used to indicate movement of a circular motion
d) Squeans – lines used to indicate when the character is dizzy or drunk
EXPRESSION AND BODY LANGUAGE
There are certain symbols that are used to depict body language and expression:
E.g. X – kiss
$ - greed or money
? – uncertainty
TEXTURE
Texture – for example if a surface is slippery or smooth will help add to the setting of the cartoon.
It is a clue that helps us – the reader to understand what the cartoon is about.

TERMS THAT YOU NEED TO KNOW IN CARTOONS

Cartoon strip A cartoon with more than one frame
Frame A single, complete drawing
Title Frame Includes the title of the cartoon, but the interactions in the cartoon still start in
this frame. When numbering frames in a cartoon, the title frame is still regarded
as Frame 1.
Character A figure in the cartoon
Stereotype A generalised and exaggerated description of a person, country or object –
which is often based on prejudice. School =prison = teenagers mind

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Advertising
What makes a written ad successful?

Headline

Body Copy
Picture Logo or slogan
(Written)

HEADLINE
The biggest writing that catches your attention. It uses the tools that you have been taught.
E.g. pun, alliteration.
PICTURE
This is the visual aspect of the advert. Is it appealing?
It will usually contain a technique to help the advert along.
E.g. famous person, colour, good looking people.
BODY COPY (written material in the advert)
This section is not complicated and has all the necessary information about the product.
LOGO OR SYMBOL
The company’s logo or symbol will always appear somewhere on the advert.

When designing an advert, you need to make sure that it is based on:
AIDA process
▪ Attract – get attention (be different)
▪ Interest – create and keep (has something unique)
▪ Desire – create a need for the product (need it, want it)
▪ Action – buy it

Once that has been done, you then need to make sure f the following four important aspects of the
advert.

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 Target Market

Language Visual Layout

TARGET MARKET – make sure you know it and successfully adapt your ad to it.

LANGUAGE – use the correct language and make sure that it is clear (techniques).

VISUAL
▪ bold, font, size
▪ colourful
▪ people – famous, young, healthy
▪ need of consumer
▪ layout – easy – not complicated

LAYOUT – this needs to be simple and effective for anyone looking at it. Keep it basic and clear
so that people understand the message you are trying to get through.

THINGS THAT INFLUENCE ADVERTS

• You will never see people at work in an ad – this is not appealing to the viewer.
• The ‘housewife’ is very NB – always providing for her happy family as best as she can with the
help of the product
• Youth is desirable and fun – no old people.
• Good health – never see sickness unless used to make the consumer scared and make them by
the product.
• Status – this emphasizes how important it is to have something bigger and better especially in
today’s materialistic society.

Adverts generally appeal to:

• Vanity – being more successful than the person next door
• Popularity – desire to be in the crowd
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• Fear – natural worries like dandruff, body odour and baldness – life insurance
• Sex appeal – more and more common appeals to a particular gender – always good looking
people

GRADE 9
CATEGORIES AND METHODS USED IN ADVERTS
Any advert must appeal to any of these 10 Basic desires, feelings or fears:
1. Gluttony
2. Avarice
3. Envy
4. Sloth
5. Pride and Personal success
6. Lust
7. Anger
8. Security
9. Respect
10. Health

Techniques used in ads: Gimmicks used in adverts:

1. Emotive words
2. Repetition 1. Endorsements
3. Scientific and technical jargon 2. Join in the fun
4. Exclamations and questions 3. Hero worship
5. Distorted language 4. Beautiful scenery
6. Alliteration and rhyme 5. Blinding science
7. Humour 6. Pin ups
8. Sayings adopted for the ad 7. Ambition and success
9. Exaggeration 8. Country freshness
10. Headlines 9. Happy families
11. Jingles 10. Win
12. Music

29
Sentencing
When we look at sentence structure, we need to learn about clauses, sentence structure and
sentence arrangement.
But first, ensure that you are up to speed on the basics…

BASICS
A sentence:
• starts with a capital letter
• ends with a full stop, question mark, exclamation mark or ellipsis dots
• = subject + verb + makes sense

IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
Phrase: A group of words that does not contain a verb.
Clause: A group of words that does contain a verb.
Sentences are made up of clauses, but not all sentences are clauses.
Sentence fragments / phrases may be used, but only with intent!
Subject: Who or what is doing the action.
Predicate: The rest of the sentence.
Contains the verb and the object (noun or pronoun to whom/which the action is being
done).
Sam bought a chocolate milkshake.
Subject Predicate

(BEFORE WE CONTINUE, IT MIGHT BE WORTHWHILE RECAPING VERBS)

THE SUBJECT
• Can be anywhere in the sentence.
• It is what does the action, or relates to the stative verb.
• Can be multiple words, e.g. The black dog.
• Subject is always a noun or noun equivalent.
 Noun
 Pronoun (he / she / it etc.) – represents the noun
 Noun clause or noun phrase, e.g. The jumping black dog [noun clause]
The black dog [noun phrase]
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• It can be complicated (series of clauses or phrases)
• e.g. The pack of wolves that ran down from the mountains in the rain attacked the flock of sheep.
• In some commands, the subject is implied, e.g. Eat your supper!

TYPES OF CLAUSES
**All clauses contain verbs**

a.) MAIN / Independent / Principal clauses:

A main clause stands on its own and makes sense / a complete sentence. To identify the main clause
in a sentence, ask yourself what the main action of the sentence is.
E.g. Joshua sat on the bench.
It is cold.
The flowers are blooming.

b.) Co-ordinate Clauses:

When two main clauses are joined by a co-ordinating conjunction (see below), the two clauses are
called co-ordinate clauses.
Co-ordinate clauses make grammatical sense alone.
Co-ordinate clauses have the same importance or weighting in a sentence.
E.g. It is cold, but the flowers are blooming.
The flowers are blooming, and the birds are singing.
I like ice cream, but I hate chocolate.

N.B. Sometimes the subject will not be repeated in the second half of the sentence, and it seems
not to have a subject. However, if you repeat the subject from the first clause in the second clause,
it will make sense.
E.g. Jack aimed carefully, and (Jack) released the arrow.

Co-ordinate clauses are linked by co-ordinating conjunctions. There are only seven. Learn them
(it will make life much easier when trying to identify a subordinate clause!): for, and, nor, but, or,
yet, so (FANBOYS).

c.) Subordinate / Dependent clauses:

A subordinate clause cannot stand on its own. It needs the main clause to make sense. A
subordinate clause is linked to the main clause with a subordinate conjunction (see below) and
describes or is dependent on the main clause.
E.g. Joshua sat on the bench after he finished the race.
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 The book which I lent you is a library book.
He told me what he had seen.
If you are ready, we will go.

A clause is subordinate when it is linked to the main clause by a subordinate conjunction.

Subordinate conjunctions make the clause they are introducing less important than the main clause.
There are many subordinating conjunctions, and they can be made up by groups of words too. The
easiest was to identify a subordinate conjunction is to know that it isn’t one of the seven co-
ordinating clauses! Some examples of subordinating clauses: after, although, as, because, before,
even though, if, even if, in order that, once, provided that, since, so [that implied], so that, than, that,
though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, whereas, whether, while…
E.g. I cannot go to school until I am fully awake.
I live by the sea because I like the sand.
Even though she disliked chocolate, she ate the pudding to be polite.

THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSE:

i. Relative clause: extra information

needs a main clause to make sense

E.g. The girl who was wearing red won the race.

ii. Conditional clause: often starts with ‘if’, or ‘on the condition that’
states a condition for something to happen

E.g. If it rains tomorrow, we will cancel the match.

SENTENCE STRUCTURE
We get simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentences.
a.) Simple sentence has one main clause only
E.g. The rugby match was cancelled.
She felt irritated.

b.) Compound sentence has more than one main clause joined by a co-ordinating conjunction
(FANBOYS).
All of the clauses in a compound sentence are equally important, and the co-ordinating conjunction
does nothing to change the rank of the clauses. The clauses express related thoughts, and neither
clause is more important structurally.
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E.g. She cooked and he cleaned.
The rugby match was cancelled and our bus broke down.

We usually connect the clauses with a co-ordinating conjunction, but you can also join them with a
semi-colon.
E.g. The ducks quacked and the chicks peeped.
OR
The ducks quacked; the chicks peeped.

**Psst! When you join two independent clauses with only a comma, it's called a comma splice. Avoid
comma splices.**

c.) Complex sentence has a main clause and at least one subordinate clause joined by a
subordinate conjunction. Complex sentences can start with either the main clause or the
subordinate clause.
E.g. After the rugby match was cancelled, our bus broke down.
Nathan ate pancakes while he read the newspaper.
Whenever he sees a pretty sunset, Jack wants to visit the beach.

d.) Compound-complex sentence:

A compound-complex sentence contains at least two main clauses and at least one subordinate
clause.
E.g. I would have purchased the cheese that you like, but it was too expensive.
Rachael explained how cookies are made, and we practised her techniques at home.
We had a party because we had lots of cookies, and our guests ate the yummy treats.

GRADE 9 – Sentence Structure Extension

DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECTS
Let’s start at the beginning. What is an object? Look at this sentence:
Stephen confused Lisa.
Stephen = Subject
Confused = verb
Lisa = object
Subject does the action of the verb.
The object is the person or thing who receives or undergoes that action.

33
We can have an extension of the object.
E.g. Our librarian sent the new books.
Books = object
New = extension of the object word = adjective
This extension can also come across in a phrase format.
E.g. The police captured the artist with the peak cap.
Police = subject
Artist = object
With a peak cap – extension of the object – adjectival phrase

Direct objects = the things or people in the sentence that the verbs happen directly to.
E.g. Our agent posted the books.
Direct object = the books
E.g. Thandi knitted a scarf.
Direct object = the scarf

Indirect object = when the sentence also names a person or thing affected by the whole
action that person or thing is an indirect object.
An indirect object answers the question "to whom?", "for whom?", "for what?"... (if you
can answer “to him” / “for him” then you need a whom rather than a who…)
E.g. Our agent posted the books to us.
Indirect object = us
E.g. Thandi knitted a scarf for her brother.
Indirect object = her brother
This is also true – even when the word order changes:
E.g. Our agent posted us the books.
Direct object = the books
Indirect object = us
E.g. Thandi knitted her brother a scarf.
Direct object: ________________________
Indirect object: _________________________
E.g. He bought his son a bike.
His son is the indirect object of the verb bought. (For whom did he buy a bike?)
E.g. They sent him a postcard.
Him is the indirect object of the verb sent. (To whom did they send a postcard?)
34
How do you know if you are right?
Leave out the direct object in the sentence and see if it makes sense.
- The agent cannot post us!
- Thandi cannot knit her brother!

Exercise:
Decide whether the words in bold are subjects, direct objects or indirect objects.
1) She sent her friend an email about the plan for the weekend. ________________
2) Sally will help you with your housework. ________________
3) Where did you put the keys? _______________
4) He gave the man with a broken leg a bag full of money. ________________
5) Alice wrote a book on the French revolution. _______________
6) I need your help. ______________
7) He offered her a flower. _________________
8) My father bought a new TV set for us. ________________
9) John sold me his car. _______________
10) I wish you good luck. _______________

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

In English, all sentences are in either ‘active’ or ‘passive’ voice:
Active: James threw a rock through the classroom window.
Passive: A rock was thrown through the classroom window by James.
In an active sentence, the person or thing responsible for the action in the sentence comes first. In
a passive sentence, the person or thing acted on comes first, and the actor is added at the end, often
introduced with the preposition ‘by’. However, in a passive sentence, we often omit the actor
completely.
E.g. A rock was thrown through the classroom window.

When to use passive voice?

Writing in the passive voice of often frowned upon, as it often makes your writing ‘wordy’ less bold
or confident. However, in some sentences, passive voice can be perfectly acceptable – or preferred.

You might use it in the following cases:

1. The actor/subject is unknown:
E.g. The cave paintings of Lascaux were made in the Upper Old Stone Age. [We don’t know who
made them.]
35
2. The actor is irrelevant:
E.g. An experimental solar power plant will be built in the Australian desert. [We are not
interested in who is building it.]

3. You want to be vague about who is responsible:

E.g. Mistakes were made. [Common in bureaucratic writing!]

4. You are talking about a general truth:

E.g. Rules are made to be broken. [By whomever, whenever.]

5. You want to emphasise the person or thing acted on. For example, it may be your main topic:
E.g. Insulin was first discovered in 1921 by researchers at the University of Toronto. It is still the
only treatment available for diabetes.

6. You are writing in a scientific genre that traditionally relies on passive voice. Passive voice is often
preferred in lab reports and scientific research papers, most notably in the Materials and Methods
section, as the focus should be on what was done, not by whom it was done:
E.g. The sodium hydroxide was dissolved in water. This solution was then titrated with
hydrochloric acid.

In these sentences you can count on your reader to know that you are the one who did the
dissolving and the titrating. The passive voice places the emphasis on your experiment rather than
on you.

When should I avoid passive voice?

1. Passive sentences often sound wordy and indirect. They can make the reader work unnecessarily
hard to decipher what is being communicated. And, since they are usually longer than active
sentences, can make your writing tedious:
E.g. Since the car was being driven by Michael at the time of the accident, the damages should be
paid for by him.
This can be written far more concisely and effectively:
E.g. Michael was driving the car at the time of the accident, so he should pay for the damages.

2. Passive sentences can get you into trouble in academic writing because they can be vague about
who is responsible for the action:
E.g. Both Othello and Iago desire Desdemona. She is courted. [Who courts Desdemona?
Othello? Iago? Both of them?]
36
E.g. Research has been done to discredit this theory. [Who did the research? You? Your teacher?
Another author?]

3. Some students use passive sentences to hide holes in their research:

E.g. The telephone was invented in the nineteenth century. [I couldn’t find out who invented the
telephone!]

GRADE 9
Error Correction
CONCORD: SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
Basic Principle: Singular subjects need singular verbs; plural subjects need plural verbs. My brother is a
nutritionist. My sisters are mathematicians.

1) The indefinite pronouns anyone, everyone, someone, no one, nobody are always singular and,
therefore, require singular verbs.
E.g. Everyone has done his or her homework.
Somebody has left her purse.

Some indefinite pronouns — such as all, some — are singular or plural depending on what they're
referring to. (Is the thing referred to countable or not?) Be careful choosing a verb to accompany
such pronouns.
E.g. Some of the beads are missing.
Some of the water is gone.

On the other hand, there is one indefinite pronoun, none, that can be either singular or plural; it
often doesn't matter whether you use a singular or a plural verb — unless something else in the
sentence determines its number. (Writers generally think of none as meaning not any and will choose
a plural verb, as in "None of the engines are working," but when something else makes us
regard none as meaning not one, we want a singular verb, as in "None of the food is fresh.")
E.g. None of you claims responsibility for this incident?
None of you claim responsibility for this incident?
None of the students have done their homework. (In this last example, the
word their precludes the use of the singular verb.)

2) Some indefinite pronouns are particularly troublesome. Everyone and everybody (listed
above, also) certainly feel like more than one person and, therefore, we could be tempted to
use a plural verb with them. They are always singular, though. Each is often followed by a

37
 prepositional phrase ending in a plural word (Each of the cars), thus confusing the verb
choice. Each, too, is always singular and requires a singular verb.
E.g. Everyone has finished his or her homework.
(You would always say, "Everybody is here." This means that the word is singular and nothing
will change that.)
E.g. Each of the students is responsible for doing his or her work in the library.
(Don't let the word "students" confuse you; the subject is each and each is always
singular: Each is responsible.)

3) Phrases such as together with, as well as, and along with are not the same as and. The phrase
introduced by as well as or along with will modify the earlier word (mayor in this case), but it
does not compound the subjects (as the word and would do).
E.g. The mayor as well as his brothers is going to prison.
The mayor and his brothers are going to jail.

4) The pronouns neither and either are singular and require singular verbs even though they seem
to be referring, in a sense, to two things.
E.g. Neither of the two traffic lights is working.
Which shirt do you want for Christmas? Either is fine with me.

Exception!
Interrogative constructions: "Have either of you two clowns read the assignment?" "Are either
of you taking this seriously?"

5) The conjunction or does not conjoin (as and does): when nor or or is used the subject closer to
the verb determines the number of the verb. Whether the subject comes before or after the
verb doesn't matter; the proximity determines the number.
E.g. Either my father or my brothers are going to sell the house.
Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house.
Are either my brothers or my father responsible?
Is either my father or my brothers responsible?
Because a sentence like "Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house" sounds
peculiar, it is probably a good idea to put the plural subject closer to the verb whenever that is
possible.

6) The words there and here are never subjects.

E.g. There are two reasons [plural subject] for this.
There is no reason for this.
38
 Here are two apples.
With these constructions, the subject follows the verb but still determines the number of the verb.

7) Sometimes phrases or clauses will get between a subject and its verb, but these must not
confuse the agreement between the subject and its verb.
E.g. The mayor, who has been convicted along with his four brothers on four counts of various
crimes but who also seems, like a cat, to have several political lives, is finally going to jail.

8) Sometimes nouns take unusual forms and can fool us into thinking they're plural when they're
really singular and vice-versa. Words such as glasses, pants, pliers, and scissors are regarded as
plural – and require plural verbs – unless they are preceded by the phrase pair of, in which case
the word pair becomes the subject, and is therefore singular.
E.g. My glasses were on the bed.
My pants were torn.
A pair of plaid trousers is in the closet.

9) Some words end in -s and appear to be plural but are really singular and require singular verbs.
E.g. The news from the front is bad.
Measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women.

10) Fractional expressions such as half of, a part of, a percentage of, a majority of are sometimes
singular and sometimes plural, depending on the meaning. (The same is true, of course, when all,
any, more, most and some act as subjects.)
E.g. Some of the voters are still angry.
A large percentage of the older population is voting against her.
Two-fifths of the troops were lost in the battle.
Two-fifths of the vineyard was destroyed by fire.
Forty percent of the students are in favour of changing the policy.
Forty percent of the student body is in favour of changing the policy.

Sums and products of mathematical processes are expressed as singular and require singular
verbs. The expression "more than one" (oddly enough) takes a singular verb: "More than one
student has tried this."
E.g. Two and two is four.
Four times four divided by two is eight.

39
11) If your sentence compounds a positive and a negative subject and one is plural, the other
singular, the verb should agree with the positive subject.
E.g. The department members but not the chair have decided not to teach on Valentine's Day.
It is not the faculty members but the president who decides this issue.
It was the speaker, not his ideas, that has provoked the students to riot.

MISRELATED PARTICIPLES
Participles of verbs are often used to introduce subordinate clauses or phrases – remember, these
give extra information about the main part of a sentence. It’s important to use participles in
subordinate phrases and clauses correctly. The participle should always describe an action
performed by the subject of the main part of the sentence.
E.g. The detective, opening the door quietly, went into the room.
(In this sentence, the present participle (opening) in the subordinate phrase refers to the subject of
the main clause (the detective). The detective, who is the subject of the sentence, is both opening
the door and coming into the room.)

The above sentence could be rewritten as follows:

Opening the door quietly, the detective went into the room.
(‘Opening the door quietly’ still refers to the detective.)

Sometimes writers use the above sentence arrangement, but do not realise that, in so doing, the
participle no longer relates to the subject – or the desired subject – of the sentence. They then end
up with what’s known as a misrelated (or dangling) participle.
E.g. Travelling to Cape Town, the weather got colder and colder.
[participle] [subject]

Strictly speaking, this sentence means that it is ‘the weather’ that is ‘travelling to Cape Town’, which
obviously isn’t what the writer was intending to say. The sentence needs to be reworded to make
the meaning clear and to make it grammatically correct,
E.g. As I was travelling to Cape Town, the weather got colder and colder.
or:
Travelling to Cape Town, I found that the weather got colder and colder.

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