Teaching Methods &

Practices
TEACHING METHODS &
PRACTICES

A Resource for Novice Teachers

JASON PROCTOR
Teaching Methods & Practices by Jason Proctor is licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.
CONTENTS

About the Book 1

Managing Learner Behavior

Classroom Norms & Procedures 5

Behavioral Norms* 6

Consequences 9

Procedures to Routines* 12

Conclusion 16

Peer Examples 17

Self-Evaluation 18

Self-Guided Learning Modules 19

References & Attribution 20

Teacher Voice 22

Teacher Voice 23

Clear Directions 27

Conclusion 29

References & Attribution 30

Classroom Layout & Teacher Radar 31

Classroom Layout* 32

Teacher Radar 37

Conclusion 40

Self-Evaluation 41

References & Attribution 41

Individual Student Corrections 43

Individual Student Corrections* 44

Conclusion* 66

Self-Evaluation 67

Self-Guided Learning 69

References & Attribution 69

Using Questions to Engage & Assess 71

Questioning to Engage 72

Conclusion 87

Self-Evaluation 88

References & Attributions 89

Cooperative Learning 92

Cooperative Learning* 93

Conclusion* 103

Self-Evaluation 104

References & Attributions 105

Planning Instruction & Assessment

Identifying Learning Outcomes 109

Backward Design 110

Approaches to Unpacking Content Standards 113

Learning Objectives* 118

Conclusion 121

Peer Examples 122

References & Attribution 123

Planning Assessments 124

Stage 2: Determining Acceptable Evidence 125

Formative Assessment 127

Summative Assessment* 135

Developing Rubrics & Scoring Guides 138
Responding to Student Needs 139
Planning Instruction & Learning Experiences 140
Scoring & Grading Practices 141

Appendix 143
This book is intended to serve as a resource for novice teachers
as they master the art of effective classroom management,
assessment, and lesson planning. At the undergraduate level,
this book is designed to accompany the instruction in the
EDUC 4353: Secondary Teaching Methods & Practices course
prior to the full-internship experience. At the graduate level,
this book is designed to support the instruction in the EDUC
5283: Teaching Methods course with a special focus on
supporting Alternatively Certified Educators. Each chapter
presents a component of the teaching and learning process
critical for teacher development and describes how that
component is relevant to the secondary classroom.
This book is being written, edited, and modified continually
by Dr. Jason Proctor, Assistant Professor at Northeastern State
University. This book is an open educational resource meant
to be retained, reused, revised, remixed, and redistributed as
needed by others who are interested in the art of teaching.
Portions of the text within this book are adapted from open
resources marked with Creative Commons licenses and the
adapted portions retain their original license restrictions. Such
sections will be noted with an “*”. Some of the resources
within this book are accessible free of charge online for your
use, but they are not openly licensed. This means you cannot
edit and redistribute them as you can with the Creative
2 | ABOUT THE BOOK

Commons licensed content. These open access resources

include many of the videos and some of the resources that are
linked throughout the book.
MANAGING
LEARNER
BEHAVIOR
CLASSROOM NORMS &
PROCEDURES

The classroom is a complex environment, and any number of

things could potentially disrupt student learning. One of your
roles as a teacher is to manage the learning environment to
minimize distractions and maximize learning. A strong system
of classroom management typically includes the following
components:

1. Clearly defined purpose

2. Positively stated behavioral norms
3. Consequence hierarchy
4. Positive reinforcement system
5. Established classroom procedures
6. Consistency

In this section, you will learn how to establish clear

expectations for student behavior and define classroom
procedures to maximize instructional time.
6 | NORMS & PROCEDURES

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Explain the purpose of classroom norms/rules;

and
• Justify the need for planning and practicing
classroom procedures.

Behavioral Norms*
Defining behavioral expectations helps establish an
environment where students can engage in the learning
process. Effective classroom management starts with defining
your expectations for student behavior (Marzano, 2007).
Classroom rules, also referred to as norms, express standards
of behavior for which individual students need to take
responsibility. Consider how the typical set of classroom rules
listed below define expectations for student behavior.

• Treat others with courtesy and politeness.

• Make sure to bring the required materials to class and to
 NORMS & PROCEDURES | 7

activities.
• Be on time for class and other activities.
• Listen to the teacher and to others when they are
speaking.
• Follow all school rules.

Care should be taken when constructing classroom rules or

norms. Most education experts recommend a small number
of general, positively stated, behavior-based rules (Thorson,
2003; Brophy, 2004). Notice in the list above, the rules are
not numerous, they are stated in positive terms (“Do X…”
rather than negative terms “Do not do Y…”), and each covers
a collection of more specific behaviors. For example, the rule
“Bring all materials to class” covers bringing pencils, paper,
textbooks, homework papers, and permission
slips—depending on the situation. As a result of their
generality, behavioral expectations can be applied across a
variety of situations.

Key Elements of Strong Norms

• Concise in wording and few in number (3-5)

• Objective and easy to observe
8 | NORMS & PROCEDURES

• Positively stated
• Something that you are prepared to uphold at
all times

Classroom behavioral norms can

Tips from the
be planned either by the teacher
Pros: Strategies alone or by the teacher with input
to Try from students. Rules defined by
the teacher may be more efficient
and consistent, and in this sense
fairer, but rules influenced by the
Wondering
students may be supported more
where to
fully by the students. Because
begin? Check
rules focus strongly on personal
out Jennifer
responsibility, however, there is a
Gonzalez’s blog
post, Classroom
stronger case for involving
Management: 4 students in making them
Keys to Starting (Brookfield, 2006; Kohn, 2006).
the Year off As a new teacher, it is typically
Right, where easier to start with a
she explains her predetermined set of expectations
4 Keys to Start and involve students in the
“unpacking” of the norms when
discussing why they are necessary.
 NORMS & PROCEDURES | 9

Including students in describing

what good and bad examples look
like will go a long way in building
the Year off
student “buy-in” to your plan.
Right which
focuses on

Consequences developing
rules and
consequences.
Consequences are the result of an
action. Therefore, consequences
could result in a positive or
negative outcome. Applying positive consequences can be
used to reinforce desired behavior and help you in establishing
a positive learning environment. However, establishing a
positive learning environment doesn’t guarantee that your
students will always meet your expectations. Later chapters
will focus on methods to correct off-task behavior, but once
you have developed a set of behavioral norms you need to
consider what will happen when students do not meet those
expectations. Consequences should be used when attempts to
correct student behavior have not been successful. Ideally,
consequences should relate to the behavioral infraction, be
delivered privately, grow in severity, and be meaningful to
students (See Doug Lemov’s posts about the Art of
Consequences Part 1 and Part 2). If students do not
understand the reason behind the consequence or do not care
about the impact of the consequence, then the chances of the
10 | NORMS & PROCEDURES

consequence changing behavior decrease. To best support

your goal of establishing a positive learning environment and
positive relationships with your student it would be best to
start with minor interventions before moving to school-based
consequences. A sample plan for responding to off-task
behavior might look like the list below.

• Warning
• Conference with Teacher
• Call Home
• Referral to Office

Key Elements of Strong Response Hierarchies:

Positive Consequences

• Tied to the needs of students. Some students

are more intrinsically motivated than others
and require systems to support their choices.
• 3 Types: tangible, social, and activity
• Aligned to your classroom values
• Generous. Systems should allow for as much
reinforcement as possible.
 NORMS & PROCEDURES | 11

Negative Consequences

• Increase support as students move up the

consequence hierarchy
• Appropriate for the grade and amount of time
in class
• Include consequences students care about
and don’t want to happen
• Include a “severity clause” for dangerous or
extremely disrespectful behavior
• Delivered quickly, early, consistently, privately,
and without emotion.

Designing behavioral norms and response techniques will be

a work in progress for you as you find your rhythm in your
classroom and what works with your style and best for your
students. One of the best things you can do as a young teacher
is to talk to other teachers and even observe the classrooms
of your peers. If you are looking for an experienced teacher
that writes a lot about classroom management, then I suggest
checking out Michael Linsin’s blog as he regularly shares
strategies and resources to help you hone your management
skills.
12 | NORMS & PROCEDURES

One or more interactive elements has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view them online here:
https://open.ocolearnok.org/
teachingmethods/?p=5#oembed-1

Tips from the Pros: Creating a SHARED Vision

Wondering how to partner with your students to

establish classroom expectations? Check out Bob
Sullo’s blog post, Beyond Goals: Creating an Inspiring
Classroom, where he provides step-by-step actions
you can take to build a shared vision of an inspiring
classroom.

Procedures to Routines*
“The number one problem in the classroom is not discipline; it is
the lack of procedures and routines.” -Harry Wong
 NORMS & PROCEDURES | 13

Routines or procedures are specific ways of doing common,

repeated classroom tasks or activities. Examples include
checking daily attendance, dealing with students who arrive
late, or granting permission to leave the classroom for an
errand. Academically related procedures include ways of
turning in daily homework (e.g. putting it on a designated
shelf at a particular time), of gaining the teacher’s attention
during quiet seatwork (e.g. raising your hand and waiting), and
of starting a “free choice” activity after completing a classroom
assignment. Procedures serve the practical purpose of making
activities and tasks flow smoothly. As such, procedures are
more like social conventions than moral expectations.

One or more interactive elements has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view them online here:
https://open.ocolearnok.org/
teachingmethods/?p=5#oembed-2

For teachers, an initial management task is to establish

procedures and routines as promptly as possible. Teachers
should plan and practice critical routines before students arrive
on day one (Bambrick-Santoyo, 2016). Planning exactly how
you want a routine to work and how you will teach it to
students will increase the likelihood that your students
14 | NORMS & PROCEDURES

understand and follow your routine. Thus, saving valuable

teaching and learning time. When planning routines try to
limit the number of steps to keep the routine manageable.
Practice the routine yourself to make sure that it works
smoothly, then script how you will practice the routine with
your students. Once your students arrive, then practice,
practice, practice. You may need to revise your procedure if it
is not working efficiently or you may need to refresh students
with a practice session mid-year if they begin to slip. Either
way, investing the time in planning routines will go a long way
in maximizing your instructional time and managing behavior.
If you are looking for a template to help plan your rollout of
a new procedure, then check out the Rolling Out Procedures
template.

Key Elements of Procedures:

• Concise number of steps

• Designed for common classroom tasks
• Discussed and practiced

◦ Explain how the procedure benefits the

students to build buy-in
 NORMS & PROCEDURES | 15

◦ Model good and bad execution

◦ Practice, practice, practice

One or more interactive elements has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view them online here:
https://open.ocolearnok.org/
teachingmethods/?p=5#oembed-3

An interactive H5P element has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view it online here:
https://open.ocolearnok.org/
teachingmethods/?p=5#h5p-2

Tips from the Pros: How to Start the Year

16 | NORMS & PROCEDURES

Wondering how to begin your school year? Check

out Joey Feith’s blog post, How I Start My School
Year: Lesson One, where he explains how his year
starts in his PE classes focuses on developing
expectations, consequences, and a culture conducive
to learning (3-part series).

https://www.spreaker.com/user/sfecich/chalk-cross-good-
one

Conclusion
Classroom management is not something best left to chance.
The more you plan and define your expectations, the more
likely your classroom will run smoothly. Having a plan does
not mean you won’t have to make adjustments along the way,
but with a system in place, you and your students can spend
more time focusing on the teaching and learning process and
less time stumbling over misunderstandings.
 NORMS & PROCEDURES | 17

Summarize Key Understandings

An interactive H5P element has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view it online here:
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Peer Examples

Check out Jordan Baker’s Classroom

Management Plan designed for an ELA
classroom.

Check out this example classroom management

plan.

Check out this example of a classroom

management plan created by Allie Turner.

Check out this example of a classroom

management plan created by Grace Pere.
18 | NORMS & PROCEDURES

Self-Evaluation

Exercise: Use the self-evaluation tool below to

assess your current efforts to establish a positive
learning environment.
 NORMS & PROCEDURES | 19

Establishing a Positive Learning Working

Yes No
Environment Component on It

My classroom norms are observable,

measurable, positively stated,
understandable, and always apply.

I have 5 or fewer classroom norms.

My classroom norms are prominently

posted.

I have developed lessons to teach

classroom norms.

I refer to norms regularly when

interacting with students.

80% of my students can restate the

classroom expectations.

I have identified essential classroom

procedures.

I directly teach classroom procedures.

I review and practice classroom

procedures with students throughout
the year.

I provide specific positive feedback

when students follow procedures.

80% of my students can demonstrate

classroom procedures.

Self-Guided Learning
20 | NORMS & PROCEDURES

Modules

Check out the self-guided modules from the

IRIS Center of Vanderbilt University.

• Learning the Components of a Comprehensive

Behavior Management Plan
• Developing Your Own Comprehensive
Behavior Management Plan

References & Attribution

Attribution: “Behavioral Norms” section was adapted in part
from Educational Psychology by Kelvin Seifert, licensed CC
BY 3.0. Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/
[email protected]
Attribution: “Procedures to Routines” section was
adapted in part from Educational Psychology by Kelvin
Seifert, licensed CC BY 3.0. Download for free at
http://cnx.org/contents/
[email protected]
Bambrick-Santoyo, P. (2016). Get better faster: A 90-day
 NORMS & PROCEDURES | 21

plan for coaching new teachers. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley
& Sons.
Brookfield, S. (2006). The skillful teacher: On technique,
trust, and responsiveness in the classroom, 2nd edition. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Brophy, J. (2004). Motivating students to learn, 2nd
edition. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Kohn, A. (2006). Beyond discipline: From compliance to
community. Reston, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
Marzano, R. J. (2007). What will I do to establish or
maintain classroom rules and procedures? In The Art and
Science of Teaching: A Comprehensive Framework for
Effective Instruction (117-130). Alexandria, VA: Association
for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Thorson, S. (2003). Listening to students: Reflections on
secondary classroom management. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Teaching Methods & Practices by Jason Proctor is licensed under a Creative

Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.
TEACHER VOICE

Now that you have established your classroom rules and

procedures the real challenge begins: maintaining those
expectations over the entire school year. In this section, we
will look at ways that you can be proactive in your efforts
to help students be successful in meeting your expectations.
Specifically, we will explore how your facial expressions,
posture, and tone influence the messages you send.

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Stand and speak with purpose.

• Give clear, concise instructions.
 TEACHER VOICE | 23

Teacher Voice
In addition to having a plan of how you want your students
to behave and how you will organize your classroom, it is also
important to think about how you will present yourself when
things begin to go slightly off track. In his blog and other
Teach Like A Champion books, Doug Lemov (2015) refers to
this skill as Strong Voice. Over time, your students may just
refer to it as your “Teacher Voice.” Whatever you call it, one
thing you must realize is that your posture, facial expression,
and tone have a strong influence on the learning environment.
According to Lemov (2015), there are six foundational
principles for presenting a strong teacher voice. Therefore, it
is worth your time to practice developing self-control in these
areas so as not to send the wrong messages to your students.

Key Elements of a Strong Teacher Voice:

• Use Formal Register: Speak and stand with a

purpose.
• Square Up, Stand Still: Stand tall, face
audience, and hold.
• Quiet power: Lower your voice and speak
24 | TEACHER VOICE

slower.
• Economy of Language: Excess words initiate
distraction
• Do Not Talk Over: “Self-interrupt” to wait for
students to listen.
• Do Not Engage: Don’t stray, stay focused on
the current issue

One or more interactive elements has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view them online here:
https://open.ocolearnok.org/
teachingmethods/?p=24#oembed-1

An interactive H5P element has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view it online here:
https://open.ocolearnok.org/
teachingmethods/?p=24#h5p-4
 TEACHER VOICE | 25

To see a detailed breakdown of the video above, check out

Doug Lemov’s blog post, Erin Krafft Uses Just Enough
Correction.

Register
Register encompasses eye contact, body position, gestures,
facial expression, and rhythm of language by a person during
a conversation or interaction (Lemov, Hernandez, & Kim,
2016). Recognize the difference between casual, formal, and
urgent registers. Learn how to use each in the classroom and
make your shifts between the registers obvious.
26 | TEACHER VOICE

Three Types of Registers

Register Voice/Words Body Language

Asymmetrical/
relaxed body
Words may run
posture (e.g.,
together
leaning more on
(pitter-patter
one foot, or leaning
rhythm)
on a wall)
Casual
Wide range of
Inconsistent eye
inflection and tone
contact
Language itself is
Repetitive/
colloquial
sweeping hand
gestures

Words chosen
carefully
Clear, slower
Symmetrical
articulation of
body posture
syllables and
Standing up
distinction between
Formal straight
words
Steady eye
contact
Words chosen
Chin up
carefully
Hands clasped or
behind back;
simple, controlled
hand gestures

Heightened tone
Wide eyes
and volume
Urgent Leaning in vs.
Words run together
standing straight up
Increased tension
Sharp gestures
in voice
 TEACHER VOICE | 27

*Table adopted from Lemov, D., Hernandez, J., & Kim, J.

(2016)

An interactive H5P element has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view it online here:
https://open.ocolearnok.org/
teachingmethods/?p=24#h5p-5

In the video below, watch how the teacher’s posture, facial

expressions, and tone change based upon her interactions with
her students and her perceived objectives.

One or more interactive elements has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view them online here:
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Clear Directions
Throughout a class period, you may give your students dozens
28 | TEACHER VOICE

of directions. How well your students execute those directions

will depend on how clear you are in delivering those directions.
When providing directions (for a task or to correct off-task
behavior), recall your principles of a strong teacher voice and
provide directions that are formal, concise, and actionable.

Key Principles of Clear Directions

• Positive: Don’t waste your time telling them

what not to do.
• Specific: Tell students what to do and how to
do it.
• Concrete: Provide clear actionable steps.
• Sequential: State what you want, in the order
you want it.
• Observable: Actions you can see.
• Check: Check for understanding

Watch how this teacher uses the principles of clear directions

and strong teacher voice to ensure that her students know
what is expected.
 TEACHER VOICE | 29

One or more interactive elements has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view them online here:
https://open.ocolearnok.org/
teachingmethods/?p=24#oembed-3

To see a detailed breakdown of the video above, check out

Doug Lemov’s blog post, Portrait of a Teacher in 8 Scenes.

Conclusion

Key Understandings

• Your facial expressions, posture, and tone

influence the messages you send.
• Sometimes students don’t follow your
instructions because your instructions are
unclear.
• Unclear instructions allow students the
30 | TEACHER VOICE

opportunity to interpret based on what is

most appealing to them.
• Set students up for success with clear
directions of what to do next.

References & Attribution

Lemov, D. (2015). Teach like a champion 2.0: 62 techniques
that put students on the path to college. San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass
Lemov, D., Hernandez, J., & Kim, J. (2016). Teach Like A
Champion Field Guide 2.0. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass

Teaching Methods & Practices by Jason Proctor is licensed under a Creative

Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.
CLASSROOM LAYOUT &
TEACHER RADAR

One of the more difficult skills for new teachers is a clear sense
of what is happening in the classroom at all times. It is no fault
of their own, it takes time to not only master the content they
are expected to teach but also how to simultaneously check
for understanding and engagement. In this chapter, we will
explore how the physical layout of your classroom factors into
student engagement and look at strategies to help you better
recognize what is happening in your classroom at all times.

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Describe how the physical learning

environment influences student learning.
• Circulate the room and scan for off-task
32 | CLASSROOM LAYOUT & TEACHER RADAR

behavior.

Classroom Layout*
Viewed broadly, classrooms may seem to be arranged in similar
ways, but there are actually important alternative
arrangements to consider. Variations exist because of grade
level, the subjects taught, the teacher’s philosophy of
education, and of course the size of the room and the furniture
available. The “best” arrangement depends on what your
students need and on the kind of teaching that you prefer and
feel able to provide (Boyner, 2003; Nations & Boyett, 2002).
Whatever the arrangement that you choose, it should help
students to focus on learning tasks as much as possible and
minimize the chances of distractions.

Listen to two HS teachers discuss how desk

placement plays a role in classroom management
 CLASSROOM LAYOUT & TEACHER RADAR | 33

One or more interactive elements has

been excluded from this version of the
text. You can view them online here:
https://open.ocolearnok.org/
teachingmethods/?p=60#audio-60-1

Displays and wall space

All classrooms have walls, of course, and how you fill them
can affect the mood or feeling of a classroom. Ample displays
make a room interesting and can be used to reinforce
curriculum goals and display (and hence publicly recognize)
students’ work. But too many displays can also make a room
seem “busy” or distracting as well as physically smaller. They
can also be more work to maintain. If you are starting a new
school year, then, a good strategy is to decorate some of the
walls or bulletin board space, but not to fill it all immediately.
Leaving some space open leaves flexibility to respond to ideas
and curriculum needs that emerge after the year is underway.
The same advice applies especially to displays that are high
maintenance, such as aquariums, pets, and plants. These can
34 | CLASSROOM LAYOUT & TEACHER RADAR

serve wonderfully as learning aids, but do not have to be in

place on the first day of school. Another option to consider is
how you might use wall space to engage students during class.
Consider how Lisa Wheeler uses vertical spaces to activate
student thinking during class (bonus: Mrs. Wheeler also shares
tips on how to assign students to groups).

Learn More: Effective Classroom Arrangement

Check out the Effective Room Arrangement: Middle

& High School packet by the Iris Center. This
resource does a great job of summarizing what
researchers have found about how the physical
learning environment impacts learning. There are
also case studies included which offer a great
opportunity to think about your future classroom.

Unique spatial arrangements

The best room arrangement sometimes depends on the grade
level or subject area of the class. Some subjects and grade levels
lend themselves especially well to small group interaction, in
 CLASSROOM LAYOUT & TEACHER RADAR | 35

which case you might prefer not to seat students in rows, but
instead around small-group tables or work areas. The latter
arrangement is sometimes preferred by elementary teachers,
but is also useful in high schools wherever students need lots
of counter space, as in some shops or art courses, or where they
need to interact, as in English as a Second Language course
(McCafferty, Jacobs, & Iddings, 2006). The key issue in
deciding between tables and rows, however, is not grade level
or subject as such, but the amount of small group interaction
you want to encourage, compared to the amount of whole-
group instruction. As a rule, tables make working with peers
easier while rows make listening to the teacher more likely and
group work slightly more awkward physically.

Listen to Kevin Stoller discuss ideas to make

learning environments more positive spaces to
interact, collaborate, and work together. See
Stoller’s book: Creating Better Learning
Environments

One or more interactive elements has

36 | CLASSROOM LAYOUT & TEACHER RADAR

been excluded from this version of the

text. You can view them online here:
https://open.ocolearnok.org/
teachingmethods/?p=60#audio-60-2

Ironically, some teachers also experience challenges with

room arrangement because they do not actually have a
classroom of their own because they must move each day
among other teachers’ rooms. “Floating” is especially likely for
specialized teachers (e.g. music teachers in elementary schools,
who move from class to class) and in schools that have an
overall shortage of classrooms. Floating can sometimes be
annoying to the teacher, though it actually also has advantages,
such as not having to take responsibility for how other
teachers’ rooms are arranged. If you find yourself floating, it
helps to consider a few key strategies, such as:

• consider using a permanent cart to move crucial supplies

from room to room
• make sure that every one of your rooms has an overhead
 CLASSROOM LAYOUT & TEACHER RADAR | 37

projector (do not count on using chalkboards or

computers in other teachers’ rooms)
• talk to the other teachers about having at least one shelf
or corner in each room designated for your exclusive use

Key Principles of Effective Classroom Layout

• Ensure frequently used materials are easily

accessible
• Provide a sense of order and organization
• Plan pathways to minimize congestion and
distraction
• Students should have a clear view of
instructional presentations
• Align instruction with room layout
• Consider how well you will be able to gain
access to every student

Teacher Radar
Doug Lemov (2015) uses the term ‘Radar’ to refer to a
teacher’s ability to see the class as it really is. Two skills that
Lemov encourages teachers to develop are the ability to scan
38 | CLASSROOM LAYOUT & TEACHER RADAR

for off-task behavior and break the plane. By consciously

scanning the room we can look to prevent behavioral issues
before they become issues. Also, scanning allows us to read
the class to see if they are following along, which fits nicely
with our efforts to check for understanding (more on that to
come). Moving away from the front of the room also helps
prevent behavioral issues from building, especially if we make
it a regular routine, not just when things are getting out of
hand.
Note in the example below, how Ms. Sentel uses proximity
control correctly to redirect a student’s attention, but in the
non-example her implementation of the strategy falls short.

One or more interactive elements has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view them online here:
https://open.ocolearnok.org/
teachingmethods/?p=60#oembed-1

Key Principles of Teacher Radar

 CLASSROOM LAYOUT & TEACHER RADAR | 39

• Scan: Be seen looking at all parts of the room,

especially the “hot spots”.
• Move: Circulate through the desks, pause
along the perimeter, and scan.

◦ Break the plane early and often

◦ Stand at the corners
◦ Move away from students who are
speaking
◦ Move toward students who are off-
task

Watch how this teacher moves around the classroom and

continually scans to catch potential off-task behavior before it
becomes an issue.

One or more interactive elements has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view them online here:
https://open.ocolearnok.org/
teachingmethods/?p=60#oembed-2
40 | CLASSROOM LAYOUT & TEACHER RADAR

Conclusion
The layout of your classroom could help or hinder your
learning experience depending on the way you desire students
to interact. Likewise, your ability to scan and move about the
room will send a message to students about their behavior.
Combined, a layout that supports the type of student
engagement and your active monitoring of student behavior
will help you establish a positive learning environment.

Summarize Key Understandings

An interactive H5P element has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view it online here:
https://open.ocolearnok.org/
teachingmethods/?p=60#h5p-6
 CLASSROOM LAYOUT & TEACHER RADAR | 41

Self-Evaluation

Exercise: Use the self-evaluation tool below to

assess your current efforts to establish a positive
learning environment.

Establishing a Positive Learning Working

Yes No
Environment Component On It

I have designed the classroom floor

plan to allow for ease of movement for
Active Supervision.

I continually monitor all areas of the

room by moving and interacting
frequently and strategically.

I continually monitor all areas of the

room by scanning and interacting
frequently and strategically.

References & Attribution

Attribution: “Classroom Layout” section was adapted in part
from Educational Psychology by Kelvin Seifert, licensed CC
42 | CLASSROOM LAYOUT & TEACHER RADAR

BY 3.0. Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/

[email protected]
Lemov, D. (2015). Teach like a champion 2.0: 62 techniques
that put students on the path to college. San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass
McCafferty, S., Jacobs, G., & Iddings, S. (Eds.). (2006).
Cooperative learning and second language teaching. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
Nations, S. & Boyett, S. (2002). So much stuff, so little
space: Creating and managing the learner-centered classroom.
Gainesville, FL: Maupin House.

Teaching Methods & Practices by Jason Proctor is licensed under a Creative

Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.
INDIVIDUAL STUDENT
CORRECTIONS

So far we have focused on preventing behaviors that are

inappropriate or annoying. The advice has all been proactive
or forward-looking: plan classroom space thoughtfully, create
reasonable procedures and rules, pace lessons and activities
appropriately, and communicate the importance of learning.
Although we consider these ideas important, it would be naïve
to imply they are enough to prevent all behavior problems.
In this chapter, we will explore methods to address student
behavior that does not meet established expectations.

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Correct off-task behavior using the least

invasive intervention necessary.
44 | STUDENT CORRECTIONS

• Narrate what students do well, not what they

do wrong.
• Differentiate between acknowledgment and
praise.
• Identify when to apply a consequence versus
a correction.
• Apply conflict resolution strategies.

Individual Student
Corrections*
For various reasons, students sometimes still do things that
disrupt other students or interrupt the flow of activities. At
such moments the challenge is not about long-term planning
but about making appropriate, prompt responses.
Misbehaviors left alone can be contagious, a process educators
sometimes call the ripple effect (Kounin, 1970). Chatting
between two students, for example, can gradually spread to
six students; rudeness by one can eventually become rudeness
by several; and so on. Because of this tendency, delaying a
response to inappropriate behavior can make getting students
back on track harder than responding to it as immediately as
possible.
 STUDENT CORRECTIONS | 45

There are many ways to respond to inappropriate behaviors,

of course, and they vary in how much they focus on the
immediate behavior compared to longer-term features or
patterns of a student’s behavior. Smith, Fisher, & Frey (2015,
p.71) proposed the following decision-making matrix to help
teachers determine how to best intervene.
46 | STUDENT CORRECTIONS

Decision-Making Matrix for Responding to Problematic

Behavior

Does this Should

warrant intervention be
immediate delayed or
intervention? deferred?
What is the What are the
function of this ways to
[“Yes” answers [“No” answers
behavior? intervene?
indicate that indicate a
immediate possible need
intervention is to delay the
needed] intervention]

• Do I have
• Is this all the
misbehavior facts?
harmful? • Is the
• Is the student in • Move
• Social
behavior an closer
attention
distracting acceptable • Signal
• Obtaining
to others? state of • Redirect
something
• Is the mind? • Replace
• Avoidance
behavior • Am I in • Reduce
• Escape
contagious? an • Relocate
• Power or
• Does the acceptable • Ignore
control
student state of • Reinforce
appear to mind?
be testing • Is this an
the system? isolated
incident?

Why? When? When? How?

There are so many ways to respond that we can describe only

a sample of the possibilities here. None are effective all the
 STUDENT CORRECTIONS | 47

time, though all work at least some of the time. We start with
a response that may not seem on the surface like a remedy at
all—simply ignoring misbehaviors.

Ignoring misbehaviors*
A lot of misbehaviors are not important or frequent enough
to deserve any response at all. They are likely to disappear
(or extinguish, in behaviorist terms) simply if left alone. If a
student who is usually quiet during class happens to whisper
to a neighbor once in a while, it is probably less disruptive and
just as effective to ignore the infraction than to respond to it.
Some misbehaviors may not be worth a response even if they
are frequent, as long as they do not seem to bother others.
Suppose, for example, a certain student has a habit of choosing
quiet seat-work times to sharpen her pencil. She is continually
out of her seat to go to the sharpener. Yet this behavior is not
really noticed by others. Is it then really a problem, however
unnecessary or ill-timed it may be? In both examples ignoring
the behavior may be wise because there is little danger of the
behavior disrupting other students or of becoming more
frequent. Interrupting your activities—or the
students’—might cause more disruption than simply ignoring
the problem.
That said, there can still be problems in deciding whether
a particular misbehavior is truly minor, infrequent, or
unnoticed by others. Unlike in our example above, students
48 | STUDENT CORRECTIONS

may whisper to each other more than “rarely” but less than
“often”: in that case, when do you decide that the whispering
is in fact too frequent and needs a more active response from
you? Or the student who sharpens her pencil, mentioned
above, may not bother most others, but she may nonetheless
bother a few. In that case how many bothered classmates are
“too many”? Five, three, just one, or…? In these ambiguous
cases, you may need more active ways of dealing with
inappropriate behavior, like the ones described in the next
sections.
You know that you should be diligent in your application
of consequences by being quick, early, consistent, private, and
free of emotion. However, that leaves us with the question,
when do we actually apply consequences?

High-P Requests
When teachers are having difficulty getting students to
respond to their requests they might find the practice of using
High-Probability Requests to be a useful technique. High-
probability (high-p) requests are a series of actions to which
a student is highly likely to respond. Asking students to
complete multiple actions that they are likely to respond
positively may then lead them to a state of mind where they
are more likely to comply with a request for targeted behavior.
Check out the Fundamental Skill Sheet: High Probability
Requests by the Iris Center for more information.
 STUDENT CORRECTIONS | 49

Notice in the example below the procedures Mrs. Ward uses

to implement high-p requests in the example and where her
delivery falls short in the non-example.

One or more interactive elements has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view them online here:
https://open.ocolearnok.org/
teachingmethods/?p=73#oembed-1

Acknowledgment vs. Praise

One area that we should be aware of is how we react while
correcting student behavior or even acknowledging positive
behavior. Good & Brophy (2008) maintain that praise does
not work as a positive reinforcement as well with adolescents
as with primary aged students. Therefore, teachers at the
secondary levels are encouraged to use praise for student
accomplishments and acknowledge efforts that meet
expectations. Some teachers are effective at narrating the
positive behaviors of other students as a subtle way of
reminding, or encouraging, the rest of the class to get on task.
50 | STUDENT CORRECTIONS

Key Principles of Acknowledgment and Praise

• Acknowledgment used when students meet

your expectations

◦ Describes a productive behavior

◦ Thank students for complying
◦ No addition of value judgment or
excited tone.

▪ “Thanks for being ready, Marcus”

▪ “Marcus is ready”

◦ Use acknowledgment to reinforce an

expectation

• Praise used when students exceed your

expectations

◦ Adds judgment words like “great” or

“fantastic”
◦ Delivered with an enthusiastic tone

▪ “Fantastic insight, Marcus”

▪ “Great job, Marcus”

◦ Praising students for merely meeting

 STUDENT CORRECTIONS | 51

expectations may reduce student

behavior over time as it “cheapens”
your praise.
◦ Save praise for when it is truly earned.

Inspired by resources from the Grab and Go section

of www.teachlikeachampion.com.

In the example below, note the procedures Ms. Fisher uses

to deliver behavior-specific praise and where her delivery falls
short in the non-example.

One or more interactive elements has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view them online here:
https://open.ocolearnok.org/
teachingmethods/?p=73#oembed-2

Nonverbal Interventions*
Sometimes it works to communicate using gestures, eye
contact, or “body language” that involves little or no speaking.
Nonverbal cues are often appropriate if misbehavior is just
52 | STUDENT CORRECTIONS

a bit too serious or frequent to ignore but not serious or

frequent enough to merit taking the time deliberately to speak
to or talk with the student. If two students are chatting off-
task for a relatively extended time, for example, sometimes a
glance in their direction, a frown, or even just moving closer to
the students is enough of a reminder to get them back on task.
Even if these responses are insufficient, they may help keep the
off-task behavior from spreading to other students.
A risk of relying on nonverbal cues, however, is that some
students may not understand their meaning or may even fail
to notice them. For example, if the two chatting students
mentioned above are engrossed in their talking, they may not
see you glance or frown at them. Or they might notice but
not interpret your cue as a reminder to get back on task.
Misinterpretation of nonverbal gestures and cues is more likely
in young children, who are still learning the subtleties of
adults’ nonverbal “language” (Guerrero & Floyd, 2005;
Heimann, et al., 2006). It is also more likely with students who
speak limited English or whose cultural background differs
significantly from your own. These students may have learned
different nonverbal gestures from your own as part of their
participation in their original culture (Marsh, Elfenbein, &
Ambady, 2003).
In the video below, watch how the teacher uses nonverbal
cues to correct student behavior without disrupting the flow
of the lesson.
 STUDENT CORRECTIONS | 53

One or more interactive elements has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view them online here:
https://open.ocolearnok.org/
teachingmethods/?p=73#oembed-3

Unseen Intervention
There may be moments when you need to stop the class to
address an issue with a particular student, but you don’t want
to disrupt the flow of learning. When those moments arise,
you can take a page out of the magician’s handbook and try
your hand at misdirection. This strategy is useful when you
want to keep things private between you and the student.

The Art of Misdirection

1. Assign a short task for the class to work on

individually.
2. Circle around the class to the student you
54 | STUDENT CORRECTIONS

need to address. Pause along the way to

monitor the work of others (be seen doing
your normal “thing”).
3. In a whisper, ask the student to stop what
they’re doing and look at you.
4. Whisper the correction.
5. Give a direction on what to do next.
6. Watch for corrected behavior and
acknowledge it.

Types of Consequences*
Consequences are the outcomes or results of an action. When
managing a classroom, two kinds of consequences are
especially effective for influencing students’ behavior: natural
consequences and logical consequences. As the term implies,
natural consequences happen “naturally”, without deliberate
intention by anyone. If a student is late for class, for example, a
natural consequence is that he misses information or material
that is needed to do an assignment. Logical consequences
happen because of the responses of or decisions by others,
but they also have an obvious or “logical” relationship to the
original action. If one student steals another’s lunch, for
example, a logical consequence might be for the thief to
 STUDENT CORRECTIONS | 55

reimburse the victim for the cost of the lunch. Natural and
logical consequences are often woven together and thus hard
to distinguish: if one student picks a fight with another
student, a natural consequence might be injury not only to
the victim, but also to the aggressor (an inherent byproduct
of fighting), but a logical consequence might be to lose friends
(the response of others to fighting). In practice, both may
occur.
In general, research has found that both natural and logical
consequences can be effective for minimizing undesirable
behaviors, provided they are applied in appropriate situations
(Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, & Curran, 2004). Consider a
student who runs impulsively down school hallways. The
student is likely to have “traffic accidents”, and thus
(hopefully) will see that running is not safe and to reduce the
frequency of running. Or consider a student who chronically
talks during class instead of working on an assigned task. The
student may have to make up the assignment later, possibly
as homework. Because the behavior and the consequence are
connected logically, the student is relatively likely to see the
drawback of choosing to talk, and to reduce how much he
or she talks on subsequent occasions. In either case, whether
natural or logical, the key features that make consequences
work are (a) that they are appropriate to the misbehavior and
(b) that the student understands the connection between the
consequences and the original behavior.
Notice, though, that natural and logical consequences do
56 | STUDENT CORRECTIONS

not always work; if they did, there would be no further need

for management strategies! One limitation is that misbehaviors
can sometimes be so serious that no natural or logical
consequence seems sufficient or appropriate. Suppose, for
example, that one student deliberately breaks another
student’s eyeglasses. There may be a natural consequence for
the victim (he or she will not be able to see easily), but not
for the student who broke the glasses. There may also be no
consequences for the aggressor that are both logical and fully
satisfactory: the aggressor student will not be able to repair the
broken glasses himself, and may not be able to pay for new
glasses either.
Another limitation of natural and logical consequences is
that their success depends on the motives of the misbehaving
student. If the student is seeking attention or acceptance by
others, then consequences often work well. Bullying in order
to impress others, for example, is more likely to lose friends
than to win them—so bullying motivated in this way is self-
limiting. If a student is seeking power over others, on the other
hand, then the consequences of bullying may not reduce the
behavior. Bullying in order to control others’ actions by
definition actually achieves its own goal, and its “natural”
result (losing friends) would be irrelevant. Of course, a bully
might also act from a combination of motives, so that natural
and logical consequences limit bullying behavior, but only
partially.
A third problem with natural and logical consequences is
 STUDENT CORRECTIONS | 57

that they can easily be confused with deliberate punishment

(Kohn, 2006). The difference is important. Consequences are
focused on repairing damage and restoring relationships, and
in this sense, they focus on the future. Punishments highlight
a mistake or wrongdoing and in this sense focus on the past.
Consequences tend to be more solution-focused.
Punishments tend to highlight the person who committed the
action, and they often shame or humiliate the wrongdoer.

Consequences vs. Correction

More than likely, you will find yourself providing more
correction than consequences in the secondary classroom. The
keys to providing strong correction are similar to those we have
discussed regarding providing clear directions.

Key Principles of Applying Consequences vs.

Correction

When applying consequences consider persistence,

degree of disruption, and motivation.

Consequence
58 | STUDENT CORRECTIONS

• Persistently engages in off-task behavior

• Disrupts other’s learning
• Clearly testing teacher’s expectations

Correction

• Distraction or Misunderstanding
• Doesn’t disrupt others

Inspired by resources from the Grab and Go section

of www.teachlikeachampion.com.

Key Principles of Correction

• Private: Provide correction privately, or at

least the illusion.
• Neutral: Correct with a neutral tone and
expression.
• Tag Behavior: Identify the action that needs
correcting.
• Quick: State what you want, then get back to
 STUDENT CORRECTIONS | 59

teaching.
• Restore: Make an effort to restore trust and
confidence with a positive gesture.

Listen to Angela Watson’s podcast, EP178 How

to act (rather than react) and stop wasting class
time, to learn strategies to eliminate misbehavior
and interruptions to maximizing learning time.

Conflict Resolution and

Problem-Solving *
When a student misbehaves persistently and disruptively, you
will need strategies that are more active and assertive than the
ones discussed so far, and that focus on conflict
resolution—the reduction of disagreements that persist over
time. Conflict resolution strategies that educators and teachers
tend to use usually have two parts (Jones, 2004). First, they
involve ways of identifying what “the” problem is precisely.
Second, they remind the student of classroom expectations
and rules with simple clarity and assertiveness, but without
60 | STUDENT CORRECTIONS

apology or harshness. When used together, the two strategies

not only reduce conflicts between a teacher and an individual
student, but also provide a model for other students to follow
when they have disagreements of their own. The next sections
discuss the nature of assertion and clarification for conflict
resolution in more detail.

Step 1: clarifying and focusing:

problem ownership*

Classrooms can be emotional places even though their primary

purpose is to promote thinking rather than expression of
feelings. The emotions can be quite desirable: they can give
teachers and students “passion” for learning and a sense of
care among members of the class. But feelings can also cause
trouble if students misbehave: at those moments negative
feelings—annoyance, anger, discomfort—can interfere with
understanding exactly what is wrong and how to set things
right again. Gaining a bit of distance from the negative feelings
is exactly what those moments need, especially on the part
of the teacher, the person with (presumably) the greatest
maturity.
In a widely cited approach to conflict resolution called
Teacher Effectiveness Training, the educator Thomas Gordon
describes this challenge as an issue of problem ownership, or
deciding whose problem a behavior or conflict it really is
(Gordon, 2003). The “owner” of the problem is the primary
 STUDENT CORRECTIONS | 61

person who is troubled or bothered by it. The owner can be

the student committing the behavior, the teacher, or another
student who merely happens to see the behavior. Since the
owner of a problem needs to take primary responsibility for
solving it, identifying ownership makes a difference in how to
deal with the behavior or problem effectively.
Suppose, for example, that a student named David makes a
remark that the teacher finds offensive (like “Sean is fat”). Is
this remark the student’s problem or the teacher’s? If David
made the comment privately to the teacher and is unlikely to
repeat it, then maybe it is only the teacher’s problem. If he is
likely to repeat it to other students or to Sean himself, however,
then maybe the problem is really David’s. On the other hand,
suppose that a different student, Sarah, complains repeatedly
that classmates refuse to let her into group projects. This is
less likely to be the teacher’s problem rather than Sarah’s: her
difficulty may affect her ability to do her own work, but not
really affect the teacher or classmates directly. As you might
suspect, too, a problem may sometimes affect several people
at once. David, who criticized Sean, may discover that he
offended not only the teacher, but also classmates, who
therefore avoid working with him. At that point the whole
class begins to share in some aspect of “the” problem: not only
is David prevented from working with others comfortably, but
also classmates and the teacher begin dealing with bad feelings
about David.
62 | STUDENT CORRECTIONS

Step 2: active, empathetic listening *

Diagnosing accurately who really has a problem with a

behavior—who “owns” it—is helped by a number of
strategies. One is active listening—attending carefully to all
aspects of what a student says and attempting to understand
or empathize as fully as possible, even if you do not agree with
what is being said (Cooper & Simonds, 2003). Active listening
involves asking questions in order continually to check your
understanding. It also involves encouraging the student to
elaborate on his or her remarks, and paraphrasing and
summarizing what the student says in order to check your
perceptions of what is said. It is important not to move too
fast toward solving the problem with advice, instructions, or
scolding, even if these are responses that you might, as a
teacher, feel responsible for making. Responding too soon
with solutions can shut down communication prematurely,
and leave you with inaccurate impressions of the source or
nature of the problem.

Step 3: assertive discipline and

I-messages*

Once you have listened well to the student’s point of view, it

helps to frame your responses and comments in terms of how
the student’s behavior affects you in particular, especially in
 STUDENT CORRECTIONS | 63

your role as the teacher. The comments should have several

features:

• They should be assertive—neither passive and

apologetic, nor unnecessarily hostile and aggressive
(Cantor, 1996). State the problem as matter-of-factly as
possible: “Joe, you are talking while I’m explaining
something”, instead of either “Joe, do you think you
could be quiet now?” or “Joe, be quiet!”
• The comments should emphasize I-messages (Gordon,
1981), which are comments that focus on how the
problem behavior is affecting the teacher’s ability to
teach, as well as how the behavior makes the teacher feel.
They are distinct from you-messages, which focus on
evaluating the mistake or problem which the student has
created. An I-message might be, “Your talking is making
it hard for me to remember what I’m trying to say.” A
you-message might be, “Your talking is rude.”
• The comments should encourage the student to think
about the effects of his or her actions on others—a
strategy that in effect encourages the student to consider
the ethical implications of the actions (Gibbs, 2003).
Instead of simply saying: “When you cut in line ahead of
the other kids, that was not fair to them”, you can try
saying, “How do you think the other kids feel when you
cut in line ahead of them?”
64 | STUDENT CORRECTIONS

Step 4: negotiation *

The first three steps describe ways of interacting that are

desirable, but also fairly specific in scope and limited in
duration. But in themselves, they may not be enough when
conflict persists over time and develops a number of
complications or confusing features. A student may persist
in being late for class, for example, in spite of efforts by the
teacher to modify this behavior. Or two students may
repeatedly speak rudely to each other, even though the teacher
has mediated this conflict in the past. Or a student may fail to
complete homework, time after time. Because these problems
develop over time, and because they may involve repeated
disagreements, they can eventually become stressful for the
teacher, the student, and any classmates who may be affected.
Their persistence can tempt a teacher simply to dictate a
resolution—a decision that can leave everyone feeling defeated,
including the teacher.
Often in these situations, it is better to negotiate a solution,
which means systematically discussing options and
compromising on one if possible. Although negotiation
always requires time and effort, it is often less time or effort
than continuing to cope with the original problem, and the
results can be beneficial to everyone. A number of experts
on conflict resolution have suggested strategies for negotiating
with students about persistent problems (Davidson & Wood,
2004). The suggestions vary in detail, but usually include some
 STUDENT CORRECTIONS | 65

combination of the steps we have already discussed above,

along with a few others:

• Decide as accurately as possible what the problem is.

Usually, this step involves a lot of the active listening
described above.
• Brainstorm possible solutions, and then consider their
effectiveness. Remember to include students in this step;
otherwise, you end up simply imposing a solution on
others, which is not what negotiation is supposed to
achieve.
• If possible, choose a solution by consensus. Complete
agreement on the choice may not be possible, but strive
for it as best you can. Remember that taking a vote may
be a democratic, acceptable way to settle differences in
some situations, but if feelings are running high, voting
does not work as well. In that case, voting may simply
allow the majority to impose its will on the minority,
leaving the underlying conflict unresolved.
• Pay attention to how well the solution works after it is
underway. For many reasons, things may not work out
the way you or students hope or expect. You may need to
renegotiate the solution at a later time.
66 | STUDENT CORRECTIONS

Conclusion*
Classroom management is the coordination of lessons and
activities to make learning as productive as possible. It is
important because classrooms are complex and somewhat
unpredictable, because students respond to teachers’ actions in
diverse ways, and because society requires that students attend
school. There are two major features of management:
preventing problems before they occur and responding to
them after they occur. Many management problems can be
prevented by attending to how classroom space is used, by
establishing daily procedures, routines, and rules, by pacing
and structuring activities appropriately, and by
communicating the importance of learning and of positive
behavior to students and parents. There are several ways of
dealing with a management problem after it occurs, and the
choice depends on the nature of the problem. A teacher can
simply ignore a misbehavior, gesture or cue students
nonverbally, rely on natural and logical consequences, or
engage in conflict resolution strategies. Whatever tactics the
teacher uses, it is important to keep in mind their ultimate
purpose: to make learning possible and effective.
 STUDENT CORRECTIONS | 67

Summarizing Key
Understandings

An interactive H5P element has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view it online here:
https://open.ocolearnok.org/
teachingmethods/?p=73#h5p-7

Self-Evaluation

Exercise: Use the self-evaluation tool below to

assess your current efforts to establish a positive
learning environment.
68 | STUDENT CORRECTIONS

Establishing a Positive Learning Working

Yes No
Environment Component on It

I give detailed positive feedback that

specifically describes the behavior and
provide a rationale.

I provide a public acknowledgment of

expectations met.

I provide public praise when students

exceed my expectations and my
students can tell why they received the
praise.

I respond to off-task behavior in a

respectful way that reduces the
probability of escalating behavior.

I use nonverbal cues to signal students

that I am aware of their behavior and
offer redirection.

I use appropriate strategies to

de-escalate or diffuse intense behavior.

I acknowledge appropriately behaving

students in the proximity of a student
who is not following expectations as a
strategy to correct behavior.

I provide brief, clear, and private

verbal reminders of the expected
behavior from the classroom rules
when necessary.
 STUDENT CORRECTIONS | 69

Self-Guided Learning

Check out the self-guided modules from the IRIS

Center of Vanderbilt University titled,

• Addressing Disruptive and Noncompliant

Behaviors (Part 1): Understanding the Acting-
Out Cycle
• Addressing Disruptive and Noncompliant
Behaviors (Part 2): Understanding the Acting-
Out Cycle

References & Attribution

Attribution: “Individual Student Corrections,” “Ignoring
Misbehaviors,” “Nonverbal Interventions,” “Types of
Consequences,” “Conflict Resolution & Problem-Solving,”
and “Conclusion” sections were adapted in part from
Educational Psychology by Kelvin Seifert, licensed CC BY 3.0.
Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/
[email protected]
70 | STUDENT CORRECTIONS

Good, T. L., & Brophy, J. E. (2008). Looking in classrooms.

(10th ed.). New York: Allyn & Bacon.
Lemov, D. (2015). Teach like a champion 2.0: 62 techniques
that put students on the path to college. San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
Smith, D., Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2015). Better than carrots
or sticks: Restorative practices for positive classroom
management. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
USING QUESTIONS TO
ENGAGE & ASSESS

Engaging students in the learning process is the job of the

teacher. The problem is knowing what methods work best
to ensure your students engage with the material. There are
multiple ways to engage students in learning. In this chapter,
we will look at the use of questioning that can be used to elicit
the type of engagement from students that you desire.

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Describe the purpose of questioning.

• Explain components of effective questioning
practices.
• Differentiate between open and closed
questions.
72 | USING QUESTIONS

• Use strategies to elicit student thinking such

as:

◦ Wait Time
◦ Cold Call
◦ No Opt Out

Questioning to Engage
The interaction between a teacher and learner is the most
important feature of a classroom. Whether helping learners to
acquire basic skills, develop understanding to solve problems,
or to engage in higher-order thinking such as evaluation, a
teacher’s usage of questions within the learning cycle is crucial.
For teachers, questioning is a key skill that can be learned and
improved with practice and reflection. Research into
questioning has given some clear pointers as to what works.
These can provide the basis for improving classroom practice.
A very common problem identified by the research is that
pupils are frequently not provided with enough ‘wait time’ to
consider an answer; another is that teachers tend to ask too
many of the same type of questions. The focus of this section
will be on developing foundational skills to equip you to ask
 USING QUESTIONS | 73

effective questions that help you engage students and elicit

student thinking to inform your instruction.

Purpose of Questioning*
Teachers ask questions for a number of reasons, the most
common of which are

• to interest, engage and challenge learners;

• to check on prior knowledge and understanding;
• to stimulate recall, activating existing knowledge and
experience in order to create new understanding and
meaning;
• to focus pupils’ thinking on key concepts and issues;
• to help pupils extend their thinking from the concrete
and factual to the analytical and evaluative;
• to lead pupils through a planned sequence which
progressively establishes key understandings;
• to promote reasoning, problem-solving, evaluation and
the formulation of hypotheses;
• to promote learners’ thinking about the way they have
learned.

The kind of question asked will depend on the reason for

asking it. For example, questioning may also be used to bring
a student’s attention back to the task at hand, ‘What do you
think about that, Peter?’ or ‘Do you agree?’ See Nathan Bond’s
74 | USING QUESTIONS

12 Questioning Strategies that Minimize Classroom

Management Problems for ideas on how to use questions to
engage learners. However, questions designed to elicit student
thinking are often referred to as ‘open’ or ‘closed.’
Closed questions, which have one clear answer, are useful to
check understanding during explanations and recap sessions.
If you want to check recall, you are likely to ask a fairly closed
question, for example, ‘What is the atomic number for
Oxygen?’ or ‘What do we call this type of text?’
On the other hand, if you want to help pupils develop
higher-order thinking skills, you will need to ask more open
questions that allow learners to give a variety of acceptable
responses. During class discussions and debriefings, it is useful
to ask open questions, for example, ‘Which of these four
sources were most useful in helping with this inquiry?’, ‘Given
all the conflicting arguments, where would you build the new
superstore?’, ‘What do you think might affect the size of the
current in this circuit?’

Summary of Research*
Questioning is one of the most extensively researched areas of
teaching and learning. This is because of its central importance
in the teaching and learning process. The research can be
divided into two broad categories

• What is effective questioning?

 USING QUESTIONS | 75

• How do questions engage students and promote

responses?

What is effective questioning?

Questioning is effective when it allows students to engage with

the learning process by actively composing responses.
Research (Borich 1996; Muijs and Reynolds 2001; Morgan
and Saxton 1994; Wragg and Brown 2001) suggests that
lessons, where questioning is effective, are likely to have the
following characteristics

• Questions are planned and closely linked to the

objectives of the lesson.
• The learning of basic skills is enhanced by frequent
questions during guided practice sessions.
• Closed questions are used to check factual
understanding and recall.
• Open questions predominate.
• Sequences of questions are planned so that the cognitive
level increases as the questions go on.
• Students have opportunities to ask their own questions
and seek their own answers. They are encouraged to
provide feedback to each other.
• The classroom climate is one where students feel secure
enough to take risks.
76 | USING QUESTIONS

The research emphasizes the importance of using open,

higher-level questions to develop students’ higher-order
thinking skills. There needs to be a balance between open and
closed questions, depending on the topic and objectives for the
lesson. A closed question, such as ‘What is the next number in
the sequence?’, can be extended by a follow-up question, such
as ‘How did you work that out?’
In the video below, watch how the teacher uses questions to
develop higher-order thinking skills. For an in-depth analysis,
check out Doug Lemov’s analysis of how a teacher stretches
student thinking with open questions.

One or more interactive elements has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view them online here:
https://open.ocolearnok.org/
teachingmethods/?p=81#oembed-1

Overall, the research shows that effective teachers use a

greater number of higher-order questions and open questions
than less effective teachers. However, the research also
demonstrates that most of the questions asked by effective and
less effective teachers are lower order and closed. It is estimated
that 70–80 percent of all learning-focused questions require
 USING QUESTIONS | 77

a simple factual response, whereas only 20–30 percent lead

students to explain, clarify, expand, generalize or infer. In other
words, only a minority of questions demand that students
use higher-order thinking skills. The mix of open and closed
questions will, of course, depend on what is being taught and
the objectives of the lesson. However, teachers who ask no
open questions in a lesson may be providing insufficient
cognitive challenges for students.
In this video, education expert John Hattie from the
University of Melbourne elaborates on our understanding of
why questions are an essential component of developing self-
regulated learners.

One or more interactive elements has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view them online here:
https://open.ocolearnok.org/
teachingmethods/?p=81#oembed-2

How do questions engage students

and promote responses?

It doesn’t matter how well-structured your questions are if

your students do not respond. This can be a problem with
shy or older students who are not used to highly interactive
78 | USING QUESTIONS

teaching. It can also be a problem with students who are not

very interested in school or engaged with learning. The
research identifies a number of strategies that are helpful in
encouraging student response. (See Borich 1996; Muijs and
Reynolds 2001; Morgan and Saxton 1994; Wragg and Brown
2001; Rowe 1986; Black and Harrison 2001; Black et al. 2002.)
Student response is enhanced where

• there is a classroom climate in which students feel safe

and know they will not be criticized or ridiculed if they
give a wrong answer
• prompts are provided to give students the confidence to
try and answer
• a ‘no-hands’ approach to answering, where you choose
the respondent rather than have them volunteer. This is
often referred to as cold calling.
• students who either do not know the answer or refuse to
answer, are not allowed to opt-out of answering the
question.
• ‘wait time’ is provided before an answer is required. The
research suggests that 3 seconds is about right for most
questions, more complex questions may need a longer
wait time. Research shows that the average wait time in
classrooms is about 1 second (Rowe 1986; Borich 1996)
 USING QUESTIONS | 79

Check out Connie Hamilton’s

blog post where she discusses See It in Action:
strategies to get rid of the “I don’t Addressing a
know” response in your Lack of Hands
classroom.

Consider Doug
Lemov’s
analysis of
what a teacher
does when
they don’t get
many hands to
engage more
students during
questioning.
80 | USING QUESTIONS

Common Pitfalls and Possible

Solutions*
Although questions are the most common form of interaction
between teachers and students, it is fair to say that questions
are not always well judged or productive for learning. This
section identifies some common pitfalls of questioning and
suggests some ways to avoid them.
Not being clear about why you are asking the
question: You will need to reflect on the kind of lesson you
are planning. Is it one where you are mainly focusing on facts,
 USING QUESTIONS | 81

rules, and sequences of actions? If that is the case, you will be

more likely to ask closed questions that relate to knowledge.
Or is it a lesson where you are focusing mainly on
comprehension, concepts, and abstractions? In that case, you
will be more likely to use open questions that relate to analysis,
synthesis, and evaluation.
Asking too many closed questions that need only a
short answer: It helps if you plan open questions in advance.
Another strategy is to establish an optimum length of response
by saying something like ‘I don’t want an answer of fewer than
15 words.’
Asking too many questions at once: Asking about a
complex issue can often lead to complex questions. Since these
questions are oral rather than written, students may find it
difficult to understand what is required and they become
confused. When you are dealing with a complex subject, you
need to focus each question on one idea only. It also helps to
use direct, concrete language and as few words as possible.
Asking difficult questions without building up to
them: This happens when there isn’t a planned sequence of
questions of increasing difficulty. Sequencing questions is
necessary to help students to move to higher levels of thinking.
Asking superficial questions: It is possible to ask lots
of questions but not get to the center of the issue. You can
avoid this problem by planning probing questions in advance.
They can often be built in as follow-up questions to extend an
answer.
82 | USING QUESTIONS

Asking a question and then answering it yourself:

What’s the point? This pitfall is often linked to another
problem: not giving students time to think before they answer.
Use ‘wait time’ to give students a chance to respond. You could
say ‘Think about your answer for 3 seconds, then I will ask.’
You could also provide prompts to help.
Focusing on a small number of students and not
involving the whole class: One way of avoiding this is to
get the whole class to write their answers to closed questions
and then show them to you together. Some teachers use small
whiteboards for this. Another possibility, which may be more
effective for more open questions, is to use the ‘no-hands’
strategy, where you pick the respondent rather than having
them volunteer. One advantage of this is that you can ask
students questions at appropriate levels of difficulty. This is a
good way of differentiating to ensure inclusion.
Check out Jennifer Gonzalez’s blog post where she
discussed the “Fisheye Syndrome” and provides strategies of
how to avoid situations where only a handful of students
answer questions.
 USING QUESTIONS | 83

Dealing ineffectively with wrong answers or

misconceptions: Teachers sometimes worry that they risk
damaging students’ self-esteem by correcting them. There are
ways of handling this positively, such as providing prompts
and scaffolds to help students correct their mistakes.
Not treating students’ answers seriously: Sometimes
teachers simply ignore answers that are a bit off-target. They
can also fail to see the implications of these answers and miss
opportunities to build on them. You could ask students why
84 | USING QUESTIONS

they have given that answer or if there is anything they would

like to add. You could also ask other students to extend the
answer. It is important not to cut students off and move on too
quickly if they have given a wrong answer.
Check out Colin Seale’s blog post where he discusses the
“Magic of Mistakes” and provides strategies to boost student’s
critical thinking by analyzing mistakes.
 USING QUESTIONS | 85

Questions that Promote Critical

Thinking*
To ensure that you are utilizing a
balance of open and closed Tips from the
questions it is helpful to plan your Pros: Question
questions in advance of a lesson. Frames
You may find that using a
framework such as Bloom’s
Taxonomy to be a useful tool
Check out Mark
when designing questions. Here
Fisher’s blog
are some suggested prompts that
post about
align with Bloom’s. Many are
Question
useful as follow-up probing
Frames. A
questions that can be used to variety of
extend student thinking: Question
Remember: Exhibit previously Frames can be
learned material by recalling facts, found on the
terms, basic concepts, and Internet. A key
answers. takeaway is
that by tracking
• What is …? your use of
• When did ____ happen? questions, you
• How would you explain …? might better
• Why did …? inform your
• How would you describe …?
86 | USING QUESTIONS

Understand: Demonstrating
understanding of facts and ideas
by organizing, comparing,
planning of
translating, interpreting, giving
questions.
descriptions and stating main
Consider
downloading
ideas.
one of the
blank templates • How would you compare …?
to evaluate contrast.. ?
your use of • Explain in your own words . . . ?
questions • What facts or ideas show …?
during your • What evidence is there that…?
next teaching
session. Apply: Solving problems by
applying acquired knowledge,
facts, techniques and rules in a
different way.

• What examples can you find to . . . ?

• How would you show your understanding of…?
• What approach would you use to…?
• What might have happened if. . . ?

Analyze: Examining and breaking information into parts by

identifying motives or causes; making inferences and finding
evidence to support generalizations.
 USING QUESTIONS | 87

• What inference can you make from. . . ?

• How would you classify . . . ?
• How would you categorize …?
• Can you identify the different parts…?

Evaluate: Presenting and defending opinions by making

judgments about information, the validity of ideas or quality
of work based on a set of criteria.

• How would you compare ……?

• Which do you think is better …?
• Evaluate the contribution of ….. to …………….
• What was the value or importance of …….. in …………..?
• What would you have recommended if you had been
……?

Create: Compiling information together in a different way by

combining elements in a new pattern or proposing alternative
solutions.

• What might have happened if…?

• Can you propose an alternative interpretation to that of
……. . ?

Conclusion
Learning to ask effective questions and respond to student
88 | USING QUESTIONS

thinking is a skill that takes effort and time to develop. To

continue growing into an effective teacher, you can enhance
your questioning skills by being intentional in the planning of
your questions. Make efforts to align your questions to your
learning objectives. Plan sequences of questions that lead your
students to increasingly challenging cognitive levels of
understanding. Lastly, monitor the types of questions you ask,
how much wait time you provide, and how you call on
students to share responses.

Summarizing Key
Understandings

Self-Evaluation

Exercise: Use the self-evaluation tool below to

assess your current efforts to establish a positive
learning environment.
 USING QUESTIONS | 89

Establishing a Positive Learning Working

Yes No
Environment Component on It

I provide multiple opportunities for

students to respond.

I use a variety of strategies to increase

student opportunities to respond.

I use wait time to increase student

opportunities for thinking.

I plan instructional questions and

response methods prior to the lesson

References & Attributions

Attribution: “Introduction” & “Purpose of Questioning”
was adapted in part from Types of Question by ORBIT: The
Open Resource Bank for Interactive Teaching, University of
Cambridge, Faculty of Education, licensed CC BY-SA 4.0.
90 | USING QUESTIONS

Attribution: “Summary of Research” was adapted in part

from Questioning Research Summary by ORBIT: The Open
Resource Bank for Interactive Teaching, University of
Cambridge, Faculty of Education, licensed CC BY-SA 4.0.
Attribution: “Common Pitfalls & Possible Solutions” was
adapted in part from Ch. 9 Questioning in Instructional
Methods, Strategies and Technologies to Meet the Needs of
All Learners by Paula Lombardi, licensed CC BY-SA 4.0
Attribution: “Questions that Promote Critical Thinking”
was adapted in part from How to Ask Questions that Prompt
Critical Thinking by UCD Teaching and Learning, University
College Dublin, licensed CC BY 3.0
Black, P. and Harrison, C. (2001) ‘Feedback in questioning
and marking: the science teacher’s role in formative
assessment’. School Science Review 82 (June) 43–49.
Black, P. et al. (2002) Working inside the black box:
assessment for learning in the classroom. King’s College,
London. ISBN: 1871984394.
Borich, G. D. (1996) Effective teaching methods (esp. ch. 8,
Questioning strategies). Prentice Hall. ISBN: 002312461X.
Morgan, N. and Saxton, J. (1994) Asking better questions:
models, techniques and classroom activities for engaging
students in learning. Pembroke.ISBN: 1551380455.
Muijs, D. and Reynolds, D. (2001) Effective teaching:
evidence and practice (esp. ch. 2, Interactive teaching). Paul
Chapman. ISBN: 0761968814.
Rowe, M. B. (1986) ‘Wait time: slowing down may be a
 USING QUESTIONS | 91

way of speeding up!’ Journal of Teacher Education 37

(January–February) 43–50.
Wragg, E. C. and Brown, G. (2001) Questioning in the
secondary school. Routledge. ISBN: 014524952X.

Using Questions to Engage & Assess by Jason Proctor is licensed under a

Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except
where otherwise noted.
COOPERATIVE
LEARNING

Engaging students in the learning process is the job of the

teacher. The problem is knowing what methods work best
to ensure your students engage with the material. There are
multiple ways to engage students in learning. In this chapter,
we will look at grouping strategies that can be used to elicit the
type of engagement from students that you desire.

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Describe the benefits of cooperative learning.

• Explain how to design, implement, and assess
cooperative learning experiences.
• Use various grouping strategies such as:

◦ Think-Pair-Share
 COOPERATIVE LEARNING | 93

◦ Reciprocal Learning
◦ Jigsaw

Cooperative Learning*
Cooperative learning is students working together to “attain
group goals that cannot be obtained by working alone or
competitively” (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1986). The
main purpose of cooperative learning is to actively involve
students in the learning process. It is a process that requires
knowledge to be discovered by students and transformed into
concepts to which the students can relate. Learning takes place
through dialog among students in a social setting. Each team
member is responsible for learning the material and also for
helping the other members of the team learn. Dean et al.
(2012) assert that positive interdependence and individual
accountability are critical components of cooperative learning.
Students must realize their effort is necessary for the group to
be successful and that each individual will be held accountable
for their contributions and meeting the learning goals.
94 | COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Background*
Cooperative learning is a methodology that employs a variety
of learning activities to improve students’ understanding of a
subject by using a structured approach that involves a series of
steps, requiring students to create, analyze, and apply concepts
(Kagan, 1990). Cooperative learning utilizes the ideas of
Vygotsky, Piaget, and Kohlberg in that both the individual and
the social setting are active dynamics in the learning process
as students attempt to imitate real-life learning. By combining
teamwork and individual accountability, students work
toward acquiring both knowledge and social skills. It is a
teaching strategy that allows students to work in small groups
with individuals of various talents, abilities, and backgrounds
to accomplish a common goal. As a result, they frame new
concepts by basing their conclusions on prior knowledge. This
process results in a deeper understanding of the material and
more potential to retain the material.

Pre-implementation*
After deciding to implement cooperative learning (CL), the
biggest challenge will be planning and preparing the classroom
and students for CL. According to Johnson, Johnson, and
Smith (1991), there are several tasks that an instructor must
accomplish before implementing cooperative learning in the
classroom. This section will detail those responsibilities.
 COOPERATIVE LEARNING | 95

Specify Instructional
Objectives (academic and Tips from the
social) of CL. The instructor Pros: Visibly
must explain why they are using Random Groups
CL, describe its benefits, and the
expected results.
Determine Group Size and
Check out Jon
Assign Students to Groups.
Orr’s blog post
Group size can range from two to
Visibly Random
four students, depending on the
Groups where
CL task. These groups can be
he talks about
homogeneous or heterogeneous. using cards to
Groups can be formed by putting assign students
students together who share to random
common strengths, interests, etc., groups of three.
or they can be randomly assigned. He has
Liljedhal (2014) argues that generously
regular use of random groupings provided a
will decrease social barriers and download
the reliance on teachers for option if you
answers while increasing want to print
classroom engagement and the and use his
mobility of knowledge between cards in your
students. class.
Arrange room. Instructors
should optimize the space in their
classrooms so that students/
96 | COOPERATIVE LEARNING

groups can interact and move about the room easily. It is

essential that a group’s seats face one another.
Plan instructional materials to promote
interdependence. The instructional methods and materials
that an instructor chooses must allow each individual to
contribute to the group’s success in a unique and meaningful
way. Without these unique contributions, a group’s structure
and cohesion will be put in jeopardy.
Assign group roles. There is some debate about whether or
not the instructor should play a role in this decision. Whether
or not an instructor chooses to assign roles within a group,
they should ensure that each student has a distinct role. Also,
the instructor should choose or assist the students in choosing
roles that use their strengths and improve their areas of
weakness. Instructors should also oversee that students do not
choose the same role over and over again. Some of the roles
that could be chosen or assigned include facilitator, recorder/
reporter, checker (for understanding), summarizer, elaborator
(on prior knowledge or discussion points), materials-runner,
and wild card (does anything else that needs to be done).
Sample role descriptions.
Assign task. When picking an assessment task (product
to be produced), the instructor should choose one standard
to address and match it to the learning approach. The
cooperative learning group’s task should be interesting,
challenging, and motivating. It should also be a performance-
driven and authentic task. The instructor should clearly
 COOPERATIVE LEARNING | 97

explain procedures for the task, provide structure (especially

useful for inexperienced CL students), and set a specific time
frame for each part and the whole task. Finally, the instructor
should question the students to check for understanding of
the task and its procedures.
Explain the criteria for success. The instructor should
communicate the group-work skills that will be evaluated. A
rubric could be created, possibly with the students’ assistance,
to evaluate the group-work skills as well as the assessment task.
The goals of your CL task will determine if you need a formal
or informal evaluation tool.
Structure positive interdependence and
accountability. Group size should be kept small so that each
member participates and contributes uniquely to the group.
Instructors should also monitor groups and individuals by
asking questions of both. A group should be asked to
collectively explain its results and individuals should be able to
defend their own position as well as the group’s as a whole.
Specify desired behaviors. An essential part of
cooperative learning’s success is teaching students how to work
in a group. To accomplish this, the instructor can conduct
mini-lessons on ways to respect others (i.e. praise, taking turns,
and shared decision-making). Students also need to be trained
in conflict resolution.
Without students’ complete understanding of the goals,
objectives, and procedures, cooperative learning will not be a
success.
98 | COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Implementation*
After all the preparations, it is time to begin working. During
the implementation phase of cooperative learning, the
students play the most important role. Some of their tasks at
this stage include:

• working together;
• listening to one another;
• questioning one another;
• keeping records of their work and progress;
• producing the assessment task (product);
• assuming personal responsibility/being involved in the
group.

The instructor also has responsibilities during this stage as

well. Johnson, Johnson, and Smith (1991) list several roles that
an instructor has during the implementation of cooperative
learning.
Monitor behavior. During cooperative learning, the
instructor should circulate throughout the classroom, visiting
each group. This is a great time to integrate formative
assessment strategies such as questioning.
Intervene if needed. While circulating, they should
intervene if the instructor notices any group conflict or off-
task behavior. Small-group conflict should be resolved as soon
as possible, and students should be shown how to prevent
 COOPERATIVE LEARNING | 99

problems in the future. The instructor might use a conflict

resolution checklist to resolve the group’s conflict. This
checklist includes items such as explaining the importance of
listening to everyone in the group, defining responsibilities,
valuing each person’s gifts, modeling excellence, and
promoting humor. Having these listed on a handout for each
group could prevent group discord and off-task behavior.
Assist with needs. While monitoring the groups’ work, the
instructor should assist groups with their needs. This might
involve pointing out additional resources and/or points-of-
view, and it also includes helping the students reflect on the
work they have completed and their progress.
Praise. Students need to know if they are completing the
assignment in a satisfactory manner, especially if they are
inexperienced at working in cooperative groups. For this
reason, the instructor should let individual students and
groups know when they do something right or well.

Post-implementation*
Johnson, Johnson, and Smith (1991) give three jobs for the
instructor to complete after the students have worked together
to complete and submit the task.
Provide closure through summarization. The
instructor should reconvene the entire group of students. At
this point, the instructor can summarize the important points
of the lesson/unit. Another suggestion is to have each group
100 | COOPERATIVE LEARNING

summarize their work and points that they think were

important. This helps the instructor to know exactly in which
knowledge level the groups are working.
Evaluate students’ learning. The instructor should use
a rubric to grade/evaluate each group’s assessment task. They
should also be evaluated on their group work using a rubric.
After the instructor has completed the evaluations, it is
important that they provide feedback to the students about
their product and their group performance. Without this
information, the students will not be able to improve their
cooperative learning skills. Remember, the goals of your CL
task will determine if you need a formal or informal evaluation
tool. If you are using informal grouping strategies that require
students to engage in brief tasks that are either not submitted
for evaluation or are used for formative assessment, then your
evaluation process may be less formal as well.
Reflect on what happened. Instructors should keep a
record of what worked and why it worked each time they
undertook a CL lesson or unit. The instructor should also
adjust their lessons based on the reflection and feedback of the
students. This will prevent the stagnation of a CL unit; it will
grow and change with each group of students.

Cooperative Learning Strategies*

The following is a non-exhaustive list of CL strategies.

 COOPERATIVE LEARNING | 101

Think-Pair-Share. Students discuss briefly with a partner.

Best practices.
Reciprocal Learning. Pairs coach one another through
practice sessions.

One or more interactive elements has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view them online here:
https://open.ocolearnok.org/
teachingmethods/?p=90#oembed-1

3-review. The teacher gives teams 3 minutes to review/clarify

what has been said.
Numbered heads. Group members are assigned a number.
The group discusses as one, and then the instructor calls one
number. The person with that number answers for the group.
Pinwheel Discussions. Variations in desk layouts can be
used to promote discussion and support your expectations for
active participation.
Concentric Circles (aka Speed Dating). Students sit facing
each other in two concentric circles. The teacher poses a
question for pairs of students to discuss. Partners switch as the
teacher poses a new question.
102 | COOPERATIVE LEARNING

One or more interactive elements has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view them online here:
https://open.ocolearnok.org/
teachingmethods/?p=90#oembed-2

Team-pair-solo. Students do the problem(s) first as a team,

then in a pair, and finally, solo.
Jigsaw. Students form expert groups to learn about a
specific concept, then return to teach the concept to their
homegroup. All students are assessed on all content.

One or more interactive elements has been

excluded from this version of the text. You
can view them online here:
https://open.ocolearnok.org/
teachingmethods/?p=90#oembed-3

Structured problem-solving. Groups are given a problem to

solve within a specified time. All members must agree and all
must be able to explain the solution.
Chat Stations. Students have short discussions in groups
as they move about the room.
 COOPERATIVE LEARNING | 103

One or more interactive elements has been

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teachingmethods/?p=90#oembed-4

Conclusion*
Cooperative learning promotes social interactions; thus
students benefit in a number of ways from the social
perspective. By having the students explain their reasoning and
conclusions, cooperative learning helps develop oral
communication skills. Because of the social interaction among
students, cooperative learning can be used to model the
appropriate social behaviors necessary for employment
situations. By following the appropriate structuring for
cooperative learning, students are able to develop and practice
skills that will be needed to function in society and the
workplace. These skills include leadership, decision-making,
trust building, communication, and conflict management.
104 | COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Summarizing Key
Understandings

Self-Evaluation

Exercise: Use the self-evaluation tool below to

assess your current efforts to establish a positive
learning environment.
 COOPERATIVE LEARNING | 105

Establishing a Positive Learning Working

Yes No
Environment Component on It

When designing a lesson, I consider

student groupings, location, and
activity level.

I provide positive and corrective

feedback while moving around the
room.

80% of my students can tell the

classroom expectations and rules for
cooperative learning activities.

References & Attributions

Attribution: “Cooperative Learning,” “Background,” “Pre-
Implementation,” “Implementation,” “Post-
Implementation,” “Cooperative Learning Strategies,” and
“Conclusion” sections were adapted in part from Emerging
106 | COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Perspectives on Learning, Teaching, and Technology (Chapter

29) by Michael Orey, licensed by CC BY 3.0. Retrieved from
https://textbookequity.org/Textbooks/
Orey_Emergin_Perspectives_Learning.pdf
Dean, C. B., Hubbell, E. R., Pitler, H., & Stone, B. (2012).
Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies
for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Holubec, E. J. (1986).
Circles of learning: Cooperation in the classroom. Edina, MN:
Interaction Book Company.
Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R., & Smith, K. (1991). Active
learning: Cooperation in the College Classroom. Edina,
Minnesota: Interaction Bock Company.
Kagan, S. Educational Leadership (Jan. 1990). Retrieved
September 2, 2003, from http://home.capecod.net/~tpanitz/
tedsarticles/coopdefinition.htm
Liljedahl, P. (2014). The affordances of using visually
random groups in a mathematics classroom. In Y. Li, E. Silver,
& S. Li (eds.) Transforming Mathematics Instruction:
Multiple Approaches and Practices. New York, NY: Springer
PLANNING
INSTRUCTION &
ASSESSMENT
IDENTIFYING LEARNING
OUTCOMES

Lesson plans are a road map to facilitate teaching and learning.

Lesson planning is an important aspect of effective teaching
because it focuses the teaching on the students; however,
lesson planning can seem overwhelming and laborious. In this
section, you will learn about the process of ensuring alignment
during lesson planning. Throughout the course, we will build
on this foundation by adding different elements to enhance
your lesson planning skills.

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to

• Unpack content standards.

• Write measurable learning objectives aligned
to standards.
110 | LESSON PLANNING: STAGE 1

Backward Design
Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe (2005) are often credited
with the idea for lesson planning called Backward Design
based on their book, Understanding by Design. Wiggins and
McTighe maintain that the traditional pattern of planning for
teachers resembles a “forward design” in which they consider
the learning activities (what students will do), the assessments
(how they will measure students), then conclude by
connecting everything to learning goals and standards. Using
the Backward Design approach helps teachers to align the
intended student learning outcomes, to the assessment
evidence, and then to the learning activities.

The first step in the lesson design

Tips from the
process is knowing where you
Pros: Basics of
want your students to end up.
Backward Design
Successful teachers are diligent in
their planning efforts, specifically
when it comes to articulating the
results they desire for their
students. In the architecture
 LESSON PLANNING: STAGE 1 | 111

world, it is stated that form

follows function. That principle
means that before deciding on the
Read Jennifer
shape of a new building, an
Gonzalez’s blog
architect should first understand
post about the
how that building will be used. In Basics of
the teaching world, successful Backward
teachers follow a similar idea in Design to see
that they do not start planning examples of
their instruction until they have where she
mapped a plan for where they are went wrong
headed. early in her
The second step of the career and how
Backward Design process requires to plan for
you as the teacher to determine success with
what form of evidence you will your lessons.
accept as evidence of student (Note: you can
achievement of the learning also listen to
objective. In this stage, you will the podcast
either select or develop the instead of

assessment task that will provide reading the

blog)
the specific evidence you need.
This step requires that you
understand a variety of assessment
types and their pros and cons in order to select the best format
for your assessment (which will be addressed later in the
course).
112 | LESSON PLANNING: STAGE 1

The last stage of the lesson design process focuses on

planning the actual learning experiences. Now that we know
where we want our students to end up, and ultimately do,
we can effectively plan learning experiences that will prepare
them to achieve our desired results. It is for this reason that
backward design is considered to be a more intentional
approach to lesson planning.

Tips from the Pros: A peek inside different

teachers lesson planning processes

• Check out Megan Faherty’s post (or listen to

the podcast) about how she approaches
lesson planning.
• If you are interested in seeing how I use
Backward Design to layout the undergraduate
course that goes along with this textbook,
check out my EDUC 4353 Secondary Teaching
Methods & Practices Course Alignment
Matrix. In my alignment matrix, you can see
how Stage 1 (objectives) and Stage 2
(assessments) align.
 LESSON PLANNING: STAGE 1 | 113

Approaches to Unpacking
Content Standards
The following sections will review different methods to
unpack content standards.

Backward Planning (Traditional)

Wiggins and McTighe (2005) suggest various methods to
begin designing instruction, one of which is reviewing
academic content standards. Content standards are typically
developed to guide instructional decisions at the school level
across a state or nation. According to the Oklahoma State
Department of Education, the “Oklahoma Academic
Standards serve as expectations for what students should know
and be able to do by the end of the school year.” The
Oklahoma Academic Standards (OAS) are defined across
content and grade levels. Wiggins and McTighe offer a few
suggestions on how to use content standards to guide your
planning.

• Look for the key nouns in the standards. (Group related

standards together to better see which nouns are key.)
Consider the big ideas implied by these nouns.
• Identify the key knowledge and skill called for by the
content standards or benchmarks. Infer the related ideas
114 | LESSON PLANNING: STAGE 1

and understandings.
• Ask, what essential questions flow from or point to the
standard? What important arguments and inquiries
relate to the standard?
• Consider the key verbs; think of them as a blueprint for
key performance assessments.
• List the activities that will enable performance and will
develop the ability to understand the big ideas. (Wiggins
& McTighe, 2005, p. 256)

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excluded from this version of the text. You
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 LESSON PLANNING: STAGE 1 | 115

Unpacking Grade Level

Outcomes (GLO’s)
There are a variety of ways to unpack content standards.
Wiggins and McTighe (2005) suggest using a template (as seen
in the See It In Action: Unpacking Academic Standards video
above) that focuses on identifying key questions,
understandings, and facts. If your content area is more heavily
focused on the demonstration of skills, or you are looking for
a different approach, then one of the following suggestions
might work better for you. The key to remember is that
backward planning is not about a specific format or template,
instead it is about clearly defining your desired outcomes and
aligning your approach.
The following resources provide a similar approach to
unpacking standards from a physical education perspective.
The first approach narrows in on individual Grade Level
Outcomes (GLO’s) and looks for key components. The
approach to unpacking the standards could be adapted to
work within any academic content area. Consider reviewing
some of the resources below to see how the principles can help
you identify desired outcomes for your learning experiences.

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116 | LESSON PLANNING: STAGE 1

excluded from this version of the text. You

can view it online here:
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excluded from this version of the text. You
can view them online here:
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To review the final unpacking in detail, check out Unpacking

GLO’s: Pickleball Unit.

Standards Breakdown
A third approach to breaking down your academic standards
uses Wiggins and McTighe’s (2005) suggestion to look for key
nouns and verbs. The following steps may give you some ideas
on how you might break standards down by focusing on key
words and phrases.
 LESSON PLANNING: STAGE 1 | 117

1. Identify any established Objectives related to your

chosen topic for your unit of learning;
2. Look for Key Words and Phrases
1. Identify key words that define the action students
should be doing. Boldface these in a particular
color (ie. blue), so they stand out.
2. Identify key phrases or words that define concepts,
topics, or knowledge that students need to know.
Bold-face these in a different color (ie. orange), so
they stand out.
3. Identify any secondary actions or descriptions that
provide further details about how students are
expected to perform the action identified earlier.
Highlight these sections for easy reference.
3. Identify what you hope students will KNOW at the end
of the learning experience. Include a brief description for
each of the key words/phrases identified in the previous
step (2b).
4. Describe what you want your students to be able to DO
at the end of the unit. These objectives should be
statements that link the action identified in the previous
section (2a) with individual pieces of knowledge (2b)
and secondary actions (2c).

7.RP.A.2 Standard Breakdown Video Coming Soon!

To review the final breakdown in detail, check out 7.RP.A.2
Standard Breakdown
118 | LESSON PLANNING: STAGE 1

Learning Objectives*
When planning lessons, GOALS describe the lesson’s
summative outcomes (broad statements about where students
will go) and the OBJECTIVES describe exactly what students
will do to get there. Check out the video below (approx. 9 min)
for a brief overview of how to write strong learning objectives.

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As described in the video, you should consider the SMART

attributes when writing objectives:

S-Specific
Learning objectives should be concise, well-defined statements
of what students will know, understand, and be able to do at
the end of the lesson. The objective should state exactly what is
to be accomplished by the student and the conditions in place,
such as, “Given a topic on American history”, “Provided with
 LESSON PLANNING: STAGE 1 | 119

a calculator and a three-minute time limit”, or “Independently,

following the five-step scientific method”. Learning outcomes
should be simply stated in student-centered terms. If students
are aware of the intended outcome, then they know where
their focus should lie. This clarity helps decrease anxiety about
their ability to succeed and helps build intrinsic motivation.

M-Measurable
Learning objectives must be quantifiable. Measurable
objectives state the outcomes that can be assessed in definite
and specific ways; the quality or level of performance that will
be considered acceptable. The criterion can be expressed by
describing the performance standard to be met, such as, “Write
a descriptive paragraph that includes a topic sentence, three
supporting detail sentences, and a closing sentence.” When
writing mastery level, you often begin with the word “with”,
then add a description, such as “90% accuracy”, “no errors”,
“appropriate punctuation” or “accurate vocabulary”. Start
with behavioral verbs (action verbs) that can be observed
(either informally or formally) and measured. Using concrete
verbs will help keep your objectives clear and concise. Bloom’s
Taxonomy provides a list of such verbs and these are
categorized according to the level of achievement at which
students should be performing.
120 | LESSON PLANNING: STAGE 1

While the verbs above clearly distinguish the action that

should be performed, there are verbs to avoid when writing
a learning objective. The following verbs are too vague or
difficult to measure: appreciate, cover, realize, be aware of,
familiarize, study, become acquainted with, gain knowledge of,
comprehend, know, learn, and understand.

A-Attainable
Learning objectives should be written at the appropriate
developmental level for student success. It is essential that
students have the prerequisite knowledge and skills and that
the lesson’s time frame supports the achievement of the
objective. You can determine the appropriate level of challenge
by referring to pre-assessments. Learning activities should be
challenging, yet offer students a realistic chance to master the
objective.
 LESSON PLANNING: STAGE 1 | 121

R-Relevant
The skills or knowledge described must be appropriate for the
grade level and subject area or an individual’s IEP goals. The
process of setting learning objectives begins with knowing the
specific standards, benchmarks, and supporting knowledge
students in your school or district are required to learn. State
standards (Oklahoma Academic Standards) and curriculum
documents are the sources for this information. This is
essential to ensure students receive the same content from
teacher to teacher.

T-Time-bound
State when students should be able to demonstrate skill (“By
the end of the lesson”).

Conclusion
Lesson planning is a critical part of becoming an effective
teacher regardless of your discipline. Using models like
Backward Design help teachers align their objectives,
assessments, and learning experiences. The key to ensuring
student success is to start with a clear end goal. Learning
objectives define that goal for the teacher and the student. In
the coming sections, we will look at how to use your learning
122 | LESSON PLANNING: STAGE 1

goals to design your assessment tools and plan your

instruction.

Summarizing Key
Understandings

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Peer Examples

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 LESSON PLANNING: STAGE 1 | 123

References & Attribution

Attribution: “Learning Objectives” section was adapted in
part from GSC Lesson Planning 101 by Deborah Kolling and
Kate Shumway-Pitt, licensed CC BY-SA 4.0
Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by
design (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development.

Media Attributions

• Blooms-Taxonomy-650×366

Identifying Learning Outcomes by Jason Proctor is licensed under a Creative

Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where
otherwise noted.
PLANNING
ASSESSMENTS

Assessment is a critical component of the instructional

planning process and should have a prominent role in the
learning process. This means that teachers should plan to
integrate multiple forms of assessment and use the data to
understand how well their students are learning the content
and skills specified by the learning objectives. An assessment
used during the learning process is referred to as a formative
assessment. In this section, you will learn about the second
stage in the Backward Design process of ensuring alignment
between your learning objectives and your assessment plan.

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Determine acceptable evidence of student

 PLANNING ASSESSMENTS | 125

learning; and
• Select and/or design formative and
summative assessments aligned with learning
objectives to support, verify, and document
learning.

Stage 2: Determining
Acceptable Evidence
Now that we understand the value of having clear learning
objectives, we can start to look at the second stage of the
Backward Design model (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005) where
we determine what types of evidence will be acceptable to
demonstrate that our students have met our goals. When
considering potential evidence, Popham and Baker (1970)
contend that teachers must develop skills to differentiate
between different types of practice to ensure that the evidence
they collect aligns with their stated learning objectives. The
assessment piece you choose, whether it be a quiz, assignment,
essay, test, or project, will provide you with evidence of student
learning. However, Popham and Baker suggest that you should
evaluate what you are asking students to do based on the
following practice types:
126 | PLANNING ASSESSMENTS

• Equivalent: practice the specific desired objective

• Analogous: practice is similar to the desired objective
but not identical.
• En-route: skill needed before performing the desired
objective
• Irrelevant: any practice or activity that does not align
with the desired objective

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excluded from this version of the text. You
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Recognizing what type of practice you are requiring students

to engage in will help guide your selection, adoption, and
creation of assessments in stage 2 of the Backward Design
process. The key to remember is that students should be given
the opportunity to practice the specific skill(s) defined by your
learning objectives (Popham & Baker, 1970). This second stage
requires that you understand the differences between
formative and summative assessment which is foundational
information necessary to ensure you provide practice and
feedback for your students during the learning process. In
addition, we will investigate a variety of assessment types and
 PLANNING ASSESSMENTS | 127

their pros and cons in order to select the best format for your
assessment.

Formative Assessment
Formative assessment includes all
the practices teachers use to check
student understanding Examples
throughout the teaching and (Sidebar)
learning process. Often, formative
assessment is said to be an
assessment for learning.
For an in-depth
look at
Definition of formative

Formative assessment
beyond what is
Assessment* discussed in
this textbook,
Formative assessment refers to the
check out the
ongoing process teachers and
series of videos
students engage in when selecting by Dr. Heidi
a learning goal(s), determining Andrade of the
student performance in relation University at
to the goal, and planning steps Albany about
needed to move students closer to
the goal. This ongoing process is
implemented through informal
128 | PLANNING ASSESSMENTS

assessments, assessments that can

easily be incorporated into day-to-
day classroom activities. Informal
designing valid
assessments are content and
formative
performance-driven and include
assessment
tools.
questioning students during a
discussion, student work (exit
slips; assignments), and direct
observation of students working.
Rather than being used for grading, formative assessment is
used to inform instructional planning and to provide students
with valuable feedback on their progress. Formative assessment
data can be collected as a pre-assessment, during a lesson, or as
a post-assessment at the closing of a lesson.
In the video below, Rick Wormeli, author of Fair Isn’t
Always Equal and Differentiation, explains the difference
between summative and formative assessment and how
formative assessment helps you offer better feedback to your
students.

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excluded from this version of the text. You
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 PLANNING ASSESSMENTS | 129

Listen to Jeoy Feith and Terri Drain discuss what

assessment for learning in a PE setting looks like
(show notes available if you what to read
instead).

Adjusting Instruction Based on

Formative Assessment*
Using assessment information to adjust instruction is
fundamental to the concept of assessment for learning.
Teachers make these adjustments “in the moment” during
classroom instruction as well as during reflection and planning
periods. Teachers use the information they gain from
questioning and observation to adjust their teaching during
classroom instruction. If students cannot answer a question,
the teacher may need to rephrase the question, probe
understanding of prior knowledge, or change the way the
current idea is being considered. Teachers need to learn to
identify when only one or two students need individual help
and when a large proportion of the class is struggling so whole
group intervention is needed.
After the class is over, effective teachers spend time
analyzing how well the lessons went, what students did and
130 | PLANNING ASSESSMENTS

did not seem to understand, and what needs to be done the

next day. Evaluation of student work also provides important
information for teachers. If many students are confused about
a similar concept, the teacher needs to re-teach it and consider
new ways of helping students understand the topic. If the
majority of students complete the tasks very quickly and well,
the teacher might decide that the assessment was not
challenging enough.

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excluded from this version of the text. You
can view them online here:
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Formative Assessment Strategies

Selecting and administering
Tips from the
assessment techniques that are
Pros: Strategies appropriate for the goals of
to Try instruction as well as the
developmental level of the
students is a crucial component of
effective formative assessment.
Teachers need to know the
 PLANNING ASSESSMENTS | 131

characteristics of a wide variety of

classroom assessment techniques
and how these techniques can be
Wondering
adapted for various content, skills,
where to
and student characteristics
begin? Check
(Seifert, 2011). There is a vast out Gretchen
array of formative assessment Vierstra’s blog
strategies that have been proven to post where she
be effective. For example, Natalie has suggested
Reiger has compiled a list of 60 a variety of
formative assessment strategies formative
along with guidance on how to assessment
use them successfully in the strategies that
classroom. Finding different you can use
strategies to try has never been today,
easier as dozens of books have tomorrow, and
been written on the topic and next week.
hundreds of videos have been
posted online demonstrating
effective strategies. The key is not
knowing all the possible formative assessment strategies but
being able to distinguish which strategy best fits your
assessment needs.
132 | PLANNING ASSESSMENTS

Technology & Formative Assessment*

Technology is a powerful ally for

See It in Action:
teachers, especially in measuring
Assess in Real- student learning. With digital
Time formative assessments, teachers
can expedite their ability to assess
and provide student feedback in
real-time. Timmis, Broadfoot,
Using Tech
Sutherland, and Oldfield (2016)
Tools for
encourage teachers to reflect on
Formative
the “four C’s” when using
Assessment
technology to enhance a lesson.
Ask yourself, does technology
allow for increased collaboration
or critical thinking opportunities? Are students able to
communicate their ideas uniquely and are students able to
demonstrate creative thinking? Following this format provides
lessons that foster student engagement, with technology as an
enhancement tool. Digital formative assessments provide
teachers the opportunity to give individual feedback quicker
and in real-time compared to traditional non-digital paper and
pen formative assessments.
Educators now have access to a variety of tools that allow for
instant feedback. Google Forms, Socrative, Kahoot, Quizziz,
Plickers, Formative, PollEverywhere, Edpuzzle, Nearpod, and
Quizlet are all educational technologies that allow teachers and
 PLANNING ASSESSMENTS | 133

students to attain instant results on the learning taking place.

The students may access the system using a variety of different
technological tools including a learning management system
(LMS) or a mobile device.

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excluded from this version of the text. You
can view them online here:
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Teachers can have students work

through retrieval practice Tips from the
together (such as when using a Pros: Assessment
polling tool like PollEverywhere with Plickers
or a game-like tool like Kahoot).
There are also educational
technology tools that are more
Looking for a
self-paced and provide
quick and easy
opportunities for learners to work
way to assess
at their own pace. Many of these
your students
services are starting to allow for
without devices
either approach to be used. in everyone’s
Quizlet flashcards and some of
their games such as Scatter,
134 | PLANNING ASSESSMENTS

Match, and Gravity can be used in

a self-directed way by students.
Quizlet also has a game called
hands? Read
Quizlet Live that can be used with
how Joey Feith
a group of students at one time
uses Plickers in
his PE
for retrieval practice. Beyond
classroom. This assessment, teachers can utilize
strategy could student devices, typically
easily be smartphones, to enhance learning
adapted for all in a variety of ways.
content areas.
Exit Tickets
• Part I
• Part II
Exit Tickets are a great way to
practice the backward design
model on a small scale. Exit
Tickets are brief mini-assessments aligned to your daily
objective. Teachers can provide their students a short period at
the end of the class session to complete and submit the Exit
Ticket. By considering the content of the Exit Ticket before
planning, teachers can ensure that they address the desired
skills and concepts during their lesson. Teachers can then use
the evidence gathered from Exit Tickets to guide future
planning sessions for remediation purposes.
 PLANNING ASSESSMENTS | 135

See It in Action: Exit Tickets

Check out this resource from the Teacher Toolkit

website. They provide a video of a teacher using Exit
Tickets and tips on how and when to use Exit
Tickets.

Summative Assessment*
Summative assessments evaluate student learning, skill
acquisition, and academic achievement at the conclusion of a
defined instructional period—typically at the end of a project,
unit, course, semester, program, or school year. Often,
summative assessment is said to be an assessment of learning.
Generally speaking, summative assessments are defined by
three major criteria:

• Tests, assignments, or projects determine whether

students have learned what they were expected to learn.
In other words, what makes an assessment “summative”
is not the design of the test, assignment, or self-
136 | PLANNING ASSESSMENTS

evaluation, per se, but the way it is used—i.e., to

determine whether and to what degree students have
learned the material they have been taught.
• Summative assessments are given at the conclusion of a
specific instructional period, and therefore they are
generally evaluative, rather than diagnostic—i.e., they are
more appropriately used to determine learning progress
and achievement, evaluate the effectiveness of
educational programs, measure progress toward
improvement goals, or make course-placement decisions,
among other possible applications.
• Summative assessment results are often recorded as
scores or grades that are then factored into a student’s
permanent academic record, whether as letter grades on
a report card or test scores used in the college admissions
process. While summative assessments are typically a
major component of the grading process in most
districts, schools, and courses, not all assessments
considered to be summative are graded.

Some of the most well-known and widely discussed examples

of summative assessments are the standardized tests
administered by states and testing organizations, usually in
math, reading, writing, and science. Other examples of
summative assessments include:

• End-of-unit or chapter tests.

 PLANNING ASSESSMENTS | 137

• End-of-term or semester tests.

• Standardized tests are used for school accountability,
college admissions (e.g., the SAT or ACT), or end-of-
course evaluation (e.g., Advanced Placement or
International Baccalaureate exams).
• Culminating demonstrations of learning or other forms
of “performance assessment,” such as portfolios of
student work that are collected over time and evaluated
by teachers or capstone projects that students work on
over extended periods and that they present and defend
at the conclusion of a school year or their high school
education.

It should also be noted that districts and schools may use

“interim” or “benchmark” tests to monitor the academic
progress of students and determine whether they are on track
to mastering the material that will be evaluated on end-of-
course tests or standardized tests. Some educators consider
interim tests to be formative since they are often used
diagnostically to inform instructional modifications, but
others may consider them to be summative. There is an
ongoing debate in the education community about this
distinction, and interim assessments may be defined differently
from place to place.
DEVELOPING RUBRICS &
SCORING GUIDES
RESPONDING TO
STUDENT NEEDS
PLANNING
INSTRUCTION &
LEARNING
EXPERIENCES
SCORING & GRADING
PRACTICES
This is where you can add appendices or other back matter.