Marriage ( Microlisting)

1. Definition and problems associated with universal definition of Marriage.

2. Universality of Marriage .
3. Why Marriage is unique to humans?
4. Types of Marriage
a. Based on No. of spouses
b. Based on Relations
c. Based on Rules of Marriage
d. Based on Status
5. Marriage payments
a. The concept
b. Types
6. Marriage Regulations
a. Prescriptive rules
b. Preferential rules
c. Proscriptive rules
7. Incest Taboo
a. Theories
b. Functions of Incest Taboo
8. Means of Acquiring Bride in different Indian tribes
9. Live in Relationships vs Marriage
10. Functions of Marriage

PYQ's :
Q1) write a note in 150 words on ways of acquiring a spouse in simpler societies ?(
2012)
Q2) where do you situate ' live in relationship' within the institution of marriage? (
250W, 2013)
Q3) Describe marriage and describe the various types of Marriage in human societies.
(2014)
Q4) write a short note on Incest Taboos ( 2015)
Q5) Discuss the different forms of preferential marriage with suitable examples from
tribal societies in India .( 2017)
Q6) write a note in 150 words on ways of acquiring mate in Tribal society .( 2018)
 MARRIAGE
Definition and problems associated with a universal definition of marriage.

Definition:
Ist definition:
Mallinowski and Radcliffe Brown in the book " Anthropological Handbook, Notes and queries
( 1951) " defined marriage as , ' A Union between a man and a woman such that children born
to the woman are the recognized legitimate offspring of both the parents'

Edmund Leach highlighted that this definition doesn't hold universality for defining marriage,as
explained below .

1. Union between a man and a woman

Deviations :
a) Polygamy in the form of ,
● Polyandry e.g , Fraternal polyandry among Toda tribe of Nilgiris and Non
Fraternal among Nayars of kerala.

● Polygyny : e.g, Muslim tribes

● Polygynandry e.g, khasas of jaunsar Bawar .
b) Concubinage union among the Jamaican Negros .
c) Female - Female marriage among Neurs of South Sudan
d) Man - Man marriage among the azande tribes
e) Ghost marriage or posthumous marriage or spirit marriage among Neurs
f) Self Marriage or sologamy
g) Boston Marriage ( lesbian Marriage)

● [ Note : Concubinage is the state of a woman in a relationship with a man of

higher social stratum that provides her less rights than a marriage ]

● [ Ghost marriage -An individual male marries on the behalf of and in the name of a
male relative who has died without getting married . All children born to the
individual get the name of the deceased , that is , 'Ghost' . Thus in this marriage
there are essentially two grooms getting married , and it violates the definition of
marriage given by Mallinowski and Radcliffe Brown]

2. Legitimacy of offspring:
Legitimacy is a legal terms, which is missing in its true sense in stateless societies .
Tribes like Todas of Nilgiris decides legitimacy by bow and arrow ceremony.
Conclusion: Thus the above definition can't be taken as a universal definition of marriage
.However Royal Anthropological Institution of Britain also accepted this definition.

Second Definition:
Kathleen Gough ( studied Nayar polyandry ) defined Marriage as a relationship between a
woman and one or more other persons, in which the child born to the woman , under
circumstances not prohibited by the rules of relationship, is accorded full birth status rights
common to normal members of the society or social stratum .
Deviations:
a) Polygyny
a) Man - Man marriage among Azande tribes .

Analysis of above definition:

1. One or more other persons - The term persons is gender neutral thus including all
forms of polygamy.

2. Rules of relationship- rules vary between societies and hence considers even
stateless societies where legitimacy is decided by simple ceremonies .

3. Full birth status : includes all forms of rights like social , political , economic, etc

4. Society or social stratum : rights vary between members of different social strata thus
covers Indian Varna system , etc

Third definition:
Edward Westermarck defined marriage in ' The Future of marriage in western Civilization '
as " A relation of one or more men to one or more women that is recognized by the custom or
law "
● It takes into consideration all forms of polygamy including polyandry and polygyny and
group marriages also

● However deviations exit,

1) Ghost marriages
2) Self marriage
3) Boston Marriage, etc

Fourth definition:
Edmund Leach stated that marriage can , but doesn't always accomplish the following,
 1. Establish the legal father of a woman's Children and the legal mother of a man's children
2. Give each or both the spouses a monopoly on the sexuality of the other.

3. Give either or both the spouses right over the labour of the other .

4. Give Either or both the spouses rights over the other's property.

5. Establishes a joint fund or property

6. Establishes a socially significant relation of affinity.

Conclusion:
1. Although there are several definitions of marriage, none of them can encompass all
different kinds of unions. As a result, while being a universal institution, marriage lacks a
single accepted definition.

2. We might therefore assert, in line with Edmund Leach, that a single definition of
marriage cannot be extended to all cultures. As of now, Gough's definition of marriage
continues to be as inclusive as possible.

3. Robin Fox has emphasized that marriage is universal but the definition of marriage has
no universality .

Universality of
Marriage:

Mallinowski and Radcliffe Brown in the book " Anthropological Handbook, Notes and queries (
1951) " defined marriage as , ' A Union between a man and a woman such that children born to
the woman are the recognized legitimate offspring of both the parents '

connector :

● The reason for the existence of marriage for us is both biological and socio- cultural .

The universality of marriage can be explained based on two approaches:

1. Functionalist approach : by Edmund Leach . He gave one of the widest possible

definition of marriage as ,
● Marriage establishes the legal father / mother of a man's/ woman's child .
 ● It gives each or both the spouses a monopoly on the sexuality of the other.

● Give either or both the spouses right over the labour of the other .

● Give Either or both the spouses rights over the other's property.

● Establishes a joint fund or property

● Establishes a socially significant relation of affinity.

2. Utilitarian Approach :
Marriage serves two important needs,
a) To check mate competition :
● Year round sexuality in humans(both male and female) can lead to mate
competition.

● To avoid any friction between the members , marriage serves a very important
function by regulating institutionalized mating between culturally defined mates .

b) Security of mother - newborn combination:

● Human babies do not have completely formed brains when they are born, in
contrast to animals.
● They require the mother's constant protection, which has a huge negative impact
on her as well.
● To take care of them both, this required the association of a mate.
● Since females can procreate until menopause, a binding relationship that would
last forever was required for prolonged child care .

● Marriage was thus developed to provide legally binding standards and Meet
requirements of both the sexes.

Exception to universality of marriage :

● Live -in relationships :
Women's employment, empowerment, education, and ideologies like feminism have all
acquired importance in modern society and changed the nature of women's job. Their
dependence on men is less likely as they become more autonomous. Due to less dependence
on men, live-in relationships increased, especially in major metropolitan areas.
● Single parent families
● Gay marriages
● Lesbian marriages , etc
Conclusion:
There might have been other options and there might have even been exceptions like a live-in
relationship, humans choose to construct the institution of marriage. The institution of marriage
is as ubiquitous in all human communities as human biological and sociocultural demands.

Why is marriage unique to humans ?

Thomas Hylland Eriksen , defines women as a 'scarce resource'. The reason being their
limited capacity to give birth to one child in a year.
Reason for the Evolution of marriage
1. Year round sexuality:
● Makes mate choice a continuous requirement throughout the year .

● This could Cause mate deficiency leading to competition for a mate .

● This would in turn led to societal disturbances and hence marriage evolved as a
solution.

2. Prolonged infant or child care :

● Erect posture and bipedal locomotion led to change in the size and orientation of
pelvic girdle.

● It leads to narrowing of birth canal

● The child birth became difficult
● This inturn reduced the litter size as incompletely developed young ones are born
.
● This lead to prolonged childcare and lead to a durable bond between the parents
.

3. Gender basis division of labour :

● Both biological and social division of labour made marriage a successful social
institution .

4. Institution of family has its genesis in marriage .

Conclusion: The biological and sociocultural demands of man, a social animal, are intertwined.
The particular male and female requirements for marriage influenced the development of the
institution of marriage.
 Types of Marriage

(A) Based on the number of spouses :

1) Monogamy
2) Polygamy : it is further divided into ,
● Polyandry
● Polygyny

3) Group Marriages

1) Monogamy :
It refers to a union when there is a marital relationship between one husband and one
wife.
It is further of two types :
a) Non serial monogamy :
● Here a man tends to have a single wife throughout his life .
● Example , Indian Hindu society.

b) Serial Monogamy:
● Here a man has a series of wives after either divorce or death of his previous wife .
● Example , American societies and most of the modern societies now a days .

Features of Monogamy:
1) Monogamy seems to be the earliest form of marriage as per various scholars.
2) Family stability and Equilibrium
3) Monogamy Is biologically the most suitable form of marriage .

Conclusion:
1. Melville Jacobs and Bernhard stern has described, "Monogamy is the most
favourite form of marriage " . Even those societies who practised polygamy are shifting
to Monogamy. Even the tribals are abandoning Polygamy.
2. As Democracy is the standard form of Government, Monogamy is the standard form of
marriage all over the world.

Polygamy :
● Robert H .Lowie In his book 'Primitive Society ' describes that in every human society,
the number of male and female is approximately equal . Hence , except Monogamy all
other forms of marriage are socially and culturally constructed .

(1) Polyandry :
concept : An individual is married to more than one spouse at a time.
Definition of Polyandry :
John Lewis defines it , as" the marriage in which a woman can have more than one husband at
the same time "
● It is found in less than 1 % of the people of the world in small food
gathering societies

● Prominent examples include , Wahuma tribe of East Africa , certain

Tribal Groups of Tibet, khasas of Jaunsar- Bewar and Todas of
Nilgiri
● Historical example being Draupadi in Mahabharta .

● It was found among certain Eskimo communities where female children

were considered as burden.

Polyandry is further of three types :

1) Fraternal polyandry:
If the men who are regarded as the husband of the woman are all brothers . It is seen among
Todas of Nilgiri
2) Non - Fraternal polyandry :
if the husbands of the women are not brothers. Example Nayars of kerala. There are
chances of paternal disputes and private property ownership in this case .
3) Levirate polyandry : if the husband dies , marrying the husband's brother is known as
levirate polyandry.

Reasons for polyandry :

1. Economic reason : Example
● among wahuma tribe of East Africa,(when a man is too poor to pay the bride price he is
assisted by his brothers )
● some Tibetan tribes and khasas of jaunsar Bewar - to avoid fragmentation of land .

2. Religious reason : Example Todas of Nilgiri - The Todas sacrifice their ist girl child to
the goddess which leads to distorted sex ratio among them .

3. Political reason : Example Nayars of kerala. They belong to the matrilineal warrior
tribe where all male members are away on the frontiers to defend the territory . Female
formally ties the marital knot with her ritual husband who goes to frontiers , but can have
visiting husbands.

4. Bride price : Due to high bride price among certain tribes polyandry is preferred.
5. Levirate polyandry : in case the husband dies , marrying the husband's brother is
levirate polyandry.
 Case Study : Todas of Nilgiris

The polyandry is quite common among the Todas of Nilgiri . The reason being marked access
of men over women and prevalence of female Infanticide .

When a man marries a woman among the Todas, it is accepted that she immediately
becomes the bride of his brothers, who typically reside together. Even a brother born
afterwards will be seen as sharing the privilege of his elder brothers . The eldest husband
conducts the traditional Bow and arrow ceremony when the wife falls pregnant, which in this
tribe establishes legal fatherhood, however all the brothers are reckoned as the father of the
child.

(2) Polygyny :
Definition: A man is married to more than one woman at a time.
● It is prevalent among many Muslim tribes .
● In Hindu Mythology, king Dasartha of Ramayana had three wives and many other
Indian and African kings also had several wives.
polygyny Is further of types :
1) Sororal polygyny : if the wives of a man are related as sisters . Example ,
● Crow Indians of North America .
● Australian aboriginals
● Eskimos of North America
● Swazis of Africa
2) Non- sororal polygyny : The wives of a man are not sisters. Example
● Tongas of Africa
● Nagas in North East India
● Santhals of central india

Reasons for polygyny :

1. Economic reason :
a) Due to requirement of more labour in Agricultural societies ,polygyny is being preferred.

b) Eskimos work as fish hunters in the polar waters. The life of a fisherman is at constant
risk. As a result, there are fewer men. Thus, polygyny is artificially made possible.

2. Status symbol: As in polygyny one is requires to pay bride price , it becomes the luxury of
the rich . Example Nagas

3. Filial widow inheritance : seen in the case of Monarchial kingdoms . When the king with
several wives dies , the eldest son inherits all the widows of his father except his biological
mother .
4. Post - Partum sex taboo : to avoid sexual intercourse in certain societies , male prefer to go
for polygyny . Example Yoruba tribe of Africa.

5. Warfare : Response to excess women over men because of the prevalence of warfare
among societies .

Ralph Linton has thus rightly described " polygyny derives from a general male primate urge to
collect females " .

3) Group marriage :
a) It is also referred to as polygynandry.
b) Several men are married to several women at the same time .
c) Group marriage is actually " Sexual Communism "
d) Rights and obligations of marriage relati
e) D.N Majumdar has reported instances of polygynandry among the Khasas of Jaunsar-
Bawar .
f) It was also reported among Marquesans of Polynesia.
g) However , lowie , Morgan andRivers denied any existence of sexual Communism in
any part of the world.

According to GP Murdock (Study of World Sample of 554 societies), the data was as following :-
Case study :
Kathleen Gough's study on Marriage among Nayars of kerala

Kathleen Gough presented a detailed study on Nayars of kerala in her work " The Nayars
and the definition of marriage " Nayars are a group of landowner Castes living in Kerala
belonging to the warfare community .

Important terms :
1. Tharavad ( matrilineally extended family which consist of brothers and sisters, a
woman's daughter their children )
2. Karnavaran (Head of tharavad )

The Nayar Marriage is a case of Non - Fraternal polyandry where a female undergoes two
types of Marriages,
a) Talikettu kalyanam ( referred to as primary marriage by Kathleen Gough and Louie
Dumont )
b) Sambandham vivah ( secondary marriage by Gough and Dumont )

● The Talikettu Kalyanam is always done with a Nayar boy but has to be done with
the boy of another Tharavad.
● Karnavaran has the authority to get all the girls in Tharavad married before they attain
sexual maturity .
● After puberty the couple cohabitate and perform some rituals after which the husband
doesn't posses any sexual monopoly on his wife .

● Now the girl can undergo ' Sambandham Marriages' with the higher caste Namboodri
Brahmins . These husbands will behave as visiting husbands .

● Edmund Leach has highlighted that the concept of Fatherhood is absent in the
Namboodri Brahmins with the Nayar children.

● Responsibility towards the child lies with the tharavad . The father has to be
acknowledged by the tharavad to accord full birth rights to the child.

● Any Sambhadham Husband can be recognized as the father of the child who provides
certain expenses related to child birth .

● The property was held in the name of oldest surviving male

● Prince Peter stated that the Sambandham is a means by which Matrilineal Nayar caste
exist in the patrilineal Namboodiri milieu.
(B) Types of Marriage based on relations :
1. Consanguineous marriage
2. Non - Consanguineous marriage

1. Consanguineous marriage:
a) Uncle - Niece Marriage :

● This type of marriage leads to generation gap .The principal here include simple
give and take .
● The group that received a daughter in marriage must return a daughter in the
next generation.
● It is most common in South Indian and Central Indian tribes . The central Indian
tribes refer it as 'Dudh Lotawa'

b) Cousin marriages
i) Parallel Cousins : Children of the siblings of the same sex . They can be ,
1) Matrilineal parallel cousins ( Mosida - Mosi's daughter )

2) patrilineal parallel Cousins ( Fabroda -Father's Brother's son)

 *(In social anthropology ego is used for the person for whom the relation is being
traced out)
[ Fabro - Father's brother ]

ii) Cross Cousins : Children of the

siblings of opposition sex . Example khasis

(C) Types of Marriage based on rules of marriage - (Needham 1962)

1. Proscriptive norms :
● These norms restrict marriage among specific groups in a society.
● Example Incest taboo
2. Prescriptive norms : The rules here prescribe whom a person should marry . Violation
of the rules attract sanctions .Endogamy and Exogamy are the main regulations
under prescriptive marriages .
a) Exogamy :
● when a person marries outside a specific social group/ lineage group / clan ,of
which he is a member .
● There can be village Exogamy, Caste Exogamy, Religion exogamy , Race
Exogamy, gotra Exogamy.
● Gotra is the maximum unit of exogamy in the Indian Hindu social system.
● Example Clan exogamy like Toda Clan exogamy , Gonds and Bhils also
perform Clan exogamy. Hindus follow strict caste exogamy.
● In Modern societies where stratification is prevalent along class lines , a member
would marry within his own class .

b) Endogamy :
● Lewis defined endogamy as follows : The rule that requires a person to marry
within a specific social group of which he is a member . In the Indian context , the
caste is defined as an endogamous unit .
 ● It can be clan endogamy , religion endogamy , caste endogamy ,etc.

● Example , the gonds marry within the Gond tribe ,Hindu follow strict gotra
exogamy .

Both these types of Marriages are widely prevalent in both tribal and modern societies . Eriksen
writes that all human groups are both endogamous and exogamous to varying degrees ,
that an endogamy once can be an exogamy other time . So, it is a matter of consideration.

3. Preferential norms :
● These marriages are preferred and don't attract any sanctions .
● These include ,
a) Cross cousin marriage (among kachin of Burma)
b) sororate and
c) levirate .

( D) Types of Marriage based on status :

1) Homogamy : it is a Caste Exogamy but the two Castes are similar in social status .
2) Heterogamy : it is a caste Exogamy, however the two Castes are dissimilar in social
status . Example , A Brahmin girl marrying a shudra boy

Heterogamy is further of two types :

a) Hypergamy or 'marrying up' :
● it Refers to practice of marrying another person of a higher caste or social status
than himself or herself.
● It is also called as Anuloma vivah .
● It is believed that Manu , the law giver , has prescribed Anuloma for a woman so
that she marries a man of higher social stratum .
 ● Brahmin males marry a kshatriya or vaishya or shudra woman under hypergamy
.

b) Hypogamy or ' marrying down' :

● practice of marrying another person of a lower caste or social stratum than
oneself.
● It is also called as pratiloma vivah
● Manu , the law giver has forbidden pratiloma for a woman as it will make her
impure by losing her original caste .

Marriage payments

Marriage payments refer to all exchanges of commodities or services between the bride's and
groom's kin groups that occur prior to, following, or during the wedding.
Frequency of marriage payments :
According to the survey conducted by G.P . Murdock in 1957 [world's ethnographic sample ] ,
the frequency of marriage payments are given below ;

Types of Marriage payments:

1. Dowry
2. Bride price
3. Bride wealth
4. Suitor service
5. Gift exchange
 1. Dowry :
● It is an Indo-European institution
● Jack Goody defined it as " Dowry is a substantial transfer of goods or money from the
bride's family to the bride and groom "
● It is seen as compensation to a man's family for undertaking the woman's responsibility.
● It is said to constitute a 'conjugal fund ' for the needs of the new couple .
● It is found in patrilineal and patrilocal societies . Example Indian Hindu society .

Dark side of Dowry :

1. Dowry Murder : M. N Srinivas and Ram Abuja had revealed in their studies that
Dowry Murder is a prevalent fact in Middle class societies in India
2. Harassment: of the bride . In certain cases burning of the bride has been reported in
states like Uttar pradesh and Bihar .
3. Female foeticide and Infanticide: Due to menace of Dowry girl child is seen as a
burden by most of the middle class families.
4. Domestic violence : NCRB data reveals that more than 50% women in rural India
undergo domestic violence for not bringing Dowry in Marriage .
 5. Debt burden on Family : the girl's family will fall in the vicious cycle of debt for paying
Dowry.

6. Decrease In the number to educate girls .

7. It can lead to both polyandry and polygyny .

Bright side of Dowry :

1. It brings stability in marriage
2. Establish marriage as socially legitimate sexual union..
3. It is seen as a compensation to the groom to take further care of the girl going out in
marriage .
4. Girls share in the family .
5. It enables bride to establish her new home

2. Bride wealth
● Lowie (1927) describes that Bride wealth provides status to the girl and is a symbol of
value and dignity in a patriarchy.
● It is common in simple Societies
● It is paid by the groom's kin group to the bride's family .
● It is seen as compensation to the bride's family over the loss of two working hands .
● It establishes man's monopoly over the reproductive rights of women .
● It cements the relationship between the two kin groups .

Example :
1. Swazi , Neur and Masai tribes of Africa pay bride price in the form of cattle .
2. The American Cheyenne Red Indians pay in the form of horses .

3. Bride price :
● A payment made to purchase a bride .
● The groom's kin is obliged to transfer resources to the bride's kin .
● It is also regarded as a social menace like Dowry.

Consequences of Bride price :

1) Child marriages
2) Commodification of women
3) Widowhood : elderly men who are able to pay bride price marry young girls which lead to
their widowhood at young age .
4) Prohibition of Widow remarriage
5) Sati - sahagaman
6) Bride price can lead to both polyandry and polygyny .
7) It leads to both levirate and sarorate polygamy .
 1.Levirate :It is a type of polygyny where a marriage is contracted by the payment of
bride - price , and in course of time if the husband dies , his widow is married to the
brother of the deceased ( the levir) and in this way the patrilineage retains control over
the woman and her children after the husband's death. In this case no bride price is
paid . Example Oraons , Gonds

2. Sororate : a type of polyandry , which is also a consequence of bride price , Here a

widower marries the sister of the deceased. In this case a dead woman is replaced by
a living one . Example Santhals , Gonds .

Both levirate and sororate are found among the Scheduled Castes and scheduled
tribes .

4. Suitor service :
● It is a replacement of bride wealth in poor sections of societies .
● To obtain rights over the bride and her unborn offspring, the groom or any of his
relations must work for a set amount of time.
● Examples , agricultural tribes like Gonds and Ho , Birhor, Chenchu in India.
● It may also involve living with the girl's family like a servant as in Lepchas
● It may be limited to certain tasks like hunting for in - laws in Siriono Red Indians.

5. Gift exchange:
● It is a form of marriage transaction which is bidirectional ( from both boy's and girl's
family )
 ● Sister exchange is one classical example among gift exchange found among Tiv tribe
of Nigeria
● Other Examples include , In Samoa ,gifts exchanged by both the sites are of equal
value
● Trobriand islanders .

Conclusion:
John Lewis writes that the marriage payment Emphasizes the fact that marriage doesn't
concern the marrying couple alone Marriage is an alliance between the two kingroups in which
the couple concerned is merely the most suspicious link .

Marriage Regulations :

● The nature, structure, and purpose of marriage in a culture are governed by certain
norms and standards.

● Every community has some laws governing marriage, although these laws differ from
society to society. However, there are some norms and standards that apply to all
cultures

Needham (1962) has classified these regulations into ,

1. Positive rules ( Rigid in Character ) :
These kind of marriage rules suggest whom to marry . They can be again of two types ,
a) Prescriptive rules : states that one must marry only a member of a particular category
. Example , among cross cousins .
b) Preferential rules : states that one ought to or may marry only a member of a
particular category . Example: Cross cousins .

2. Negative rules ( Flexible compared to positive rules ) or Proscriptive rules :

● These kinds of rules suggest whom not to marry .
● Example :
1. Prohibition of intercaste marriages.
2. Inter-religion marriage
3. Prohibition of marriages among different economic classes
4. Prohibition of Widow remarriage.
5. INCEST TABOO
 Incest Taboo

● The word INCEST means sexual intercourse within a closely related person of one's
family like Mother - son , Brother - sister,etc
● The word TABOO refers to a Prohibition of such sexual intercourse on moral basis .
● Lewis defined" Incest as a term applied to any such prohibited union "

● Prohibition existed to only those who are held to be within the family , even though there
may be several degrees of biological distance or they are hardly related at all . Example
Father - daughter incest is tabooed in all societies .

Theories Explaining the INCEST TABOO:

1. Psychoanalytic Theory :
● proposed by Sigmond Freud .
● According to this theory, a strong sexual attraction exist between two persons of a
closely related family like Mother and son , Father and Daughter , Sister and Brother ,
etc
● Incase if the INCEST is not socially or Morally prohibited , it may lead to sexual relations
among the close family members .
● Therefore taboo is a way to control it .
criticism :
● Studies indicate that certain children do have an innate propensity for incest, but it
would be erroneous to generalise from such a finding.

● The theory also falls short of addressing why most kids in families without elders don't
engage in incest.
 ● Kachin tribesmen- mating with daughter or sister is incestuous , but with mother is
adulterous .

2. Childhood Familiarity Theory :

● Given by Edward Westermarck
● It signifies that , people who were brought up together since childhood, like siblings are
not usually sexually attached to eachother .
● Therefore such marriages may not be successful.
Criticism:
● First Cousin marriages among Muslim community
● This theory was rejected upon the subsequent discovery that some children were
sexually interested in their parents and siblings.
● Why do societies need to prohibit marriages that would voluntarily be avoided because
of disinterest.

3. Inbreeding avoidance theory :

● This theory focuses on potentially damaging consequences of inbreeding.
● People within the same family are likely to carry the same harmful recessive genes .
● Inbreeding leads to inbreeding depression and consequent biological and degenerative
diseases .
● Raymond Firth's report on Tikopia tribe living in Southern pacific says that they have
an idea of 'Mara' associated with inbreeding which meant barrenness, illness and
ultimately death

Criticism :

1. Eriksen refused this theory saying that people in many cases are ignorant of the
possible negative genetic effects of inbreeding. Therefore avoiding inbreeding can be a
consequence of incest taboo but it can not be a cause of it .
2. Population genetics studies have revealed that various endogamous Castes have
been observed to lose all recessive harmful genes and flourish for generations.

4. Family Cooperation Theory :

● Proposed by E.B Tylor and elaborated by Leslie White and Claude Levi Strauss.
● According to him Incest Taboo is necessary for Cooperation and healthy relationships
among family members.

● It Emphasizes value of incest taboo in promoting Cooperation among different family

groups and thus helping communities survive .

● Tylor explained it as a choice "between marrying out or being killed out " incase of
hostilities among different kin groups .
 ● Those who marry outside increased their chances of survival and strength.

Criticism :
1. Why did not man select to wed one or two members of his group outside . This would
have produced several ties, avoided the suffering of losing numerous members, and
diverted resources.

5. Family disruption theory :

● Presented by Mallinowski.
● According to him sexual relations within a family would create many rivalries, Jealousy,
Enimity , tension and disturbance which affects the functioning of a good family .

● Therefore incest taboo is necessary for Protection of family members from disturbance
and chaos .

Criticism :
1. This theory fails to explain brother - sister incest in the ancient Egypt and Inca empires .

Functions Of Incest Taboo :

1. Genetic variability: Inbreeding is avoided by the incest taboo, which reduces the
occurrence of homozygous traits in a population. This results in increased genetic
diversity, which could improve the population's chances of surviving
2. Community cooperation: explained by Family Cooperation Theory by E.B Tylor .
3. Family Harmony : explained by Family Disruption theory .

Conclusion:

Significant criminal cases involving father-daughter incest are currently on the rise in western
society. According to studies from 2016, 1.5% of women in India admitted to engaging in
incestuous relationships. To sum up, even though the taboo against incest has certain
evolutionary roots, the current generation is defying the traditional institutions.

MEANS OF ACQUIRING BRIDE IN DIFFERENT INDIAN TRIBES :

● LOWIE first used the Term " Means of acquiring a mate " in his book 'Primitive Society '
● Later in the book " An Introduction to social Anthropology " by D.N Majumdar and T.N
Madan , the same phrase was used .
There are several ways of acquiring a mate but all are not legitimate.
1. Based on consent of parents and prospective couple :
a) By probation:
● In kuki tribe , male goes to his beloved, stays there for a probationary period during
which they are allowed to have sexual relations with the girl .
 ● In case the girl conceives in the meantime the boy is obliged to marry the girl .
b) By service :
● It is comparatively rare .
● It is usually performed by those who are unable to pay the bride price to the girl's family .
● Evans Pritchard observed that only 30 out of 240 tribes are known to have this as
means of acquiring mates .
● In our country , the Bhils and Gonds occasionally observe marriage by service .
2. Based on the consent of prospective couple :
a) By capture :
● In a Civilized society, marriage by capture is condemned.
● Found among Nagas , kharia and Birhor tribes .
● In kharia and Birhor tribes ,in annual fair or festival or at a public place , a boy
applies Sindhur on the forehead of the girl he likes .
● By this gesture, it is understood that he is publicly married to the woman
● It is called by different names in various tribes ,
i) Ho tribe - oporitopi
ii) Santhals - Itutbapla
iii) Gond tribe - posiothur
a) By trial :
● This method of finding a mate is basically a test of the boy's physical prowess.

● The boy who wins the competition marries the girl .

● Example , in Bhils of Gujarat and Madhya pradesh , such marriage is
observed.

b) By elopement :
● This method is observed among Gonds , Bhils and Garasias of Rajasthan

d) By Intrusion:
● Sometimes a girl forcibly enters the house of a boy she likes .
● Sometimes gets insulted but continues to stay there , till she is accepted as daughter-in-
law .
● Example , kamar and Munda tribes .
● In Ho tribe it is called as Anadar means disrespect.

e) By mutual consent :
● The couple gets married in mutual agreement with or without the consent of either
side of the parents .
● In Santhal tribe , it is called as Raja - Raji
● In Ho tribe - it is called as Raji Khushi

Based on the consent of parents :

a) By purchase :
 ● This Involves paying bride price by the groom's family to the bride's family .
● It is one among the very common practice of acquiring a wife.
● Lowie observed marriage by purchase among the Kirghiz , a Turkish tribe of
South- western Siberia , the Ho of Bihar , The Ewe tribe of Togo of west
Africa and the Kai of New Guinea .
● The Neurs and Maasai tribes of Africa pay cattle as bride price .

b) By Exchange :

●The Brother gives his sister in marriage to another man and gets the latter's
sister as his wife .
● This marriage saves both the families from marriage expenditure.
● Examples , In Santhals and Bhils , it is called Golanti- bapla .
c) By Negotiations :
● In Few tribes , it either includes Dowry and bride price between the parents of
either side .
● Ho tribe called it Andi - marriage
● Karia Tribe - Asli marriage
● Santhals - Kiran bahu bapla .

Q) Where do you situate live-in relations within the institution of marriage?

Ans:A live-in relationship is a living arrangement in which unmarried partners choose to live
together for an extended period of time or on permanent basis under one roof , with an
emotionally and sexually close bond similar to that of marriage.
Reasons for rise :
1. To test mutual compatibility before committing to a legal union.
2. Enormous personal independence without concern for Family obligations
3. Financial independence as there is no need to enter a joint fund venture as in marriage .
4. Easy to dissolve the relationship without any legal and social hassles .
 5. To live together if marriage is legally restricted . Example Homosexual couples
6. To deal with space restrictions in urban areas

Inclusion within the purview of marriage:

● It varies from society to society.
● It depends on social recognition, not legal one .
● Many western communities today give live-in relations equal rights as bestowed upon by
marriage.
● India has legally recognized these relations under domestic violence act .
● However, society also need to accept it to equate it within three institutions of marriage.

As a threat to marriage:
While live -in relationships are gaining more and more acceptance among the younger
generation. It is still far away from replacing marriage as the latter provides greater financial
and emotional security and also includes bonding of domestic groups and kinship ties .
Even in the most advanced civilization, live-in relationships are viewed as a step before
marriage in order to determine compatibility. It is not viewed as a complete substitute for
marriage.
Conclusion:
Marriage and live-in relationships each have advantages and disadvantages. Whatever kind of
relationship one chooses, it must ultimately serve the needs of both partners and be based on
mutual respect and commitment.

Functions of Marriage:

● Marriage is a social institution with functions, rights and responsibilities almost common
to all kinds of marriages across the world .
● Edmund Leach , while trying to attempt a universal definition of marriage enlisted
functions of marriage, one or more of which is found in every society . They are ;
1. It establishes the legal father / Mother of a woman's/ man's child .
2. It gives either or both the spouses a monopoly on the sexuality of others .
3. It gives either or both the spouses right over the labour of the other .
4. It gives either or both the spouses right over the other's property.
5. It establishes a joint fund or property for the benefit of the children.
6. It establishes a socially significant relationship between domestic groups of husband and
wife.
Apart from these , marriage also fulfills other functions,

7. Biological needs : The institution of marriage satisfies an individual's biological

demands. According to Sigmond Freud , Sex is an innate need to humans , fulfilling
which is a characteristic feature of marriage.
8. Procreation: is also another crucial aspect of marriage.Society benefits when children
are born outside of marriage. The human race's survival and continuation are therefore
guaranteed.
9. Upbringing of the children.
10. Legitimacy : the marriages contracted according to the rules of the society are honored
and legitimized .
11. Marriage is consummated in accordance with social custom, and the conditions of its
dissolution are equally determined by social conventions. For instance, marriage is a
sacrament and cannot be simply dissolved among Hindus. However, marriage is a social
compact for tribal people. Either spouse may dissolve it at their discretion. Similar laws
apply to Muslims and Christians as well.