u x1 x2

k2
m1 m2
k1 k3
Figure 3–4 b
Mechanical system.

EXAMPLE 3–4 Obtain the transfer functions X1(s)兾U(s) and X2(s)兾U(s) of the mechanical system shown in
Figure 3–4.
The equations of motion for the system shown in Figure 3–4 are
$ # #
m1 x1 = -k1 x1 - k2 Ax1 - x2 B - bAx1 - x2 B + u
$ # #
m2 x2 = -k3 x2 - k2 Ax2 - x1 B - bAx2 - x1 B

Simplifying, we obtain
$ # #
m1 x1 + bx1 + Ak1 + k2 Bx1 = bx2 + k2 x2 + u
$ # #
m2 x2 + bx2 + Ak2 + k3 Bx2 = bx1 + k2 x1

Taking the Laplace transforms of these two equations, assuming zero initial conditions, we obtain

Cm1 s2 + bs + Ak1 + k2 B D X1(s) = Abs + k2 BX2(s) + U(s) (3–5)

Cm2 s2 + bs + Ak2 + k3 B D X2(s) = Abs + k2 BX1(s) (3–6)

Solving Equation (3–6) for X2(s) and substituting it into Equation (3–5) and simplifying, we get
2
C Am1 s2 + bs + k1 + k2 BAm2 s2 + bs + k2 + k3 B - Abs + k2 B DX1(s)

= Am2 s2 + bs + k2 + k3 BU(s)

from which we obtain

X1(s) m2 s2 + bs + k2 + k3
= 2
(3–7)
U(s) Am1 s2 + bs + k1 + k2 BAm2 s2 + bs + k2 + k3 B - Abs + k2 B

From Equations (3–6) and (3–7) we have

X2(s) bs + k2
= 2
(3–8)
U(s) Am1 s + bs + k1 + k2 BAm2 s2 + bs + k2 + k3 B - Abs + k2 B
2

Equations (3–7) and (3–8) are the transfer functions X1(s)兾U(s) and X2(s)兾U(s), respectively.

EXAMPLE 3–5 An inverted pendulum mounted on a motor-driven cart is shown in Figure 3–5(a). This is a model
of the attitude control of a space booster on takeoff. (The objective of the attitude control prob-
lem is to keep the space booster in a vertical position.) The inverted pendulum is unstable in that
it may fall over any time in any direction unless a suitable control force is applied. Here we consider

68 Chapter 3 / Mathematical Modeling of Mechanical Systems and Electrical Systems

 y

x
ᐉ

ᐉ cos u
mg ᐉ

O x
P
u M

(a)

ᐉ u

V
mg

H H
O x

u V M
Figure 3–5
(a) Inverted
pendulum system;
(b) free-body
diagram. (b)

only a two-dimensional problem in which the pendulum moves only in the plane of the page. The
control force u is applied to the cart. Assume that the center of gravity of the pendulum rod is at
its geometric center. Obtain a mathematical model for the system.
Define the angle of the rod from the vertical line as u. Define also the (x, y) coordinates of
the center of gravity of the pendulum rod as AxG , yG B. Then
xG = x + l sin u
yG = l cos u

Section 3–2 / Mathematical Modeling of Mechanical Systems 69

 To derive the equations of motion for the system, consider the free-body diagram shown in
Figure 3–5(b). The rotational motion of the pendulum rod about its center of gravity can be
described by
$
Iu = Vl sin u - Hl cos u (3–9)
where I is the moment of inertia of the rod about its center of gravity.
The horizontal motion of center of gravity of pendulum rod is given by
d2
m (x + l sin u) = H (3–10)
dt2
The vertical motion of center of gravity of pendulum rod is
d2
m (l cos u) = V - mg (3–11)
dt2
The horizontal motion of cart is described by
d 2x
M = u - H (3–12)
dt2
#
Since we must keep the inverted pendulum vertical,# we can assume that u(t) and u (t) are
small quantities such that sin u ⯐ u, cos u=1, and uu2 = 0. Then, Equations (3–9) through (3–11)
can be linearized. The linearized equations are
$
Iu = Vlu - Hl (3–13)
$ $
m(x + lu ) = H (3–14)
0 = V - mg (3–15)
From Equations (3–12) and (3–14), we obtain
$ $
(M + m)x + mlu = u (3–16)
From Equations (3–13), (3–14), and (3–15), we have
$
Iu = mglu - Hl
$ $
= mglu - l(mx + mlu )
or $ $
AI + ml2 Bu + mlx = mglu (3–17)

Equations (3–16) and (3–17) describe the motion of the inverted-pendulum-on-the-cart system.
They constitute a mathematical model of the system.

EXAMPLE 3–6 Consider the inverted-pendulum system shown in Figure 3–6. Since in this system the mass is con-
centrated at the top of the rod, the center of gravity is the center of the pendulum ball. For this
case, the moment of inertia of the pendulum about its center of gravity is small, and we assume
I=0 in Equation (3–17). Then the mathematical model for this system becomes as follows:
$ $
(M + m)x + mlu = u (3–18)
$ $
ml2u + mlx = mglu (3–19)
Equations (3–18) and (3–19) can be modified to
$
Mlu = (M + m)gu - u (3–20)
$
Mx = u - mgu (3–21)

70 Chapter 3 / Mathematical Modeling of Mechanical Systems and Electrical Systems

 z

x ᐉ sin u
m

ᐉ cos u mg
ᐉ

0 x
P
u M
Figure 3–6
Inverted-pendulum
system.

$
Equation (3–20) was obtained by eliminating
$ x from Equations (3–18) and (3–19). Equation
(3–21) was obtained by eliminating u from Equations (3–18) and (3–19). From Equation (3–20)
we obtain the plant transfer function to be
Q (s) 1
=
-U(s) Mls - (M + m)g
2

1
=
M + m M + m
Ml a s + gb as - gb
A Ml A Ml
The inverted-pendulum plant has one pole on the negative real axis C s = - A1M + m兾 1MlB 1gD and
another on the positive real axis Cs = A1M + m兾 1MlB 1gD. Hence, the plant is open-loop unstable.
Define state variables x1 , x2 , x3 , and x4 by
x1 = u
#
x2 = u
x3 = x
#
x4 = x
Note that angle u indicates the rotation of the pendulum rod about point P, and x is the location
of the cart. If we consider u and x as the outputs of the system, then
y1 u x
y = B R = B R = B 1R
y2 x x3
(Notice that both u and x are easily measurable quantities.) Then, from the definition of the state
variables and Equations (3–20) and (3–21), we obtain
#
x 1 = x2
# M + m 1
x2 = gx1 - u
Ml Ml
#
x 3 = x4
# m 1
x4 = - gx + u
M 1 M

Section 3–2 / Mathematical Modeling of Mechanical Systems 71

 In terms of vector-matrix equations, we have
0 1 0 0 0
#
x1 M + m x1 1
# g 0 0 0 -
x2 Ml x2 Ml
D # T = F VD T + F Vu (3–22)
x3 0 0 0 1 x3 0
#
x4 m x4 1
- g 0 0 0
M M
x1
y 1 0 0 0 x
B 1R = B R D 2T (3–23)
y2 0 0 1 0 x3
x4
Equations (3–22) and (3–23) give a state-space representation of the inverted-pendulum system.
(Note that state-space representation of the system is not unique. There are infinitely many such
representations for this system.)

3–3 MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Basic laws governing electrical circuits are Kirchhoff’s current law and voltage law.
Kirchhoff’s current law (node law) states that the algebraic sum of all currents entering and
leaving a node is zero. (This law can also be stated as follows: The sum of currents enter-
ing a node is equal to the sum of currents leaving the same node.) Kirchhoff’s voltage law
(loop law) states that at any given instant the algebraic sum of the voltages around any loop
in an electrical circuit is zero. (This law can also be stated as follows: The sum of the volt-
age drops is equal to the sum of the voltage rises around a loop.) A mathematical model
of an electrical circuit can be obtained by applying one or both of Kirchhoff’s laws to it.
This section first deals with simple electrical circuits and then treats mathematical
modeling of operational amplifier systems.
LRC Circuit. Consider the electrical circuit shown in Figure 3–7. The circuit con-
sists of an inductance L (henry), a resistance R (ohm), and a capacitance C (farad).
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the system, we obtain the following equations:
di 1
L + Ri + i dt = ei (3–24)
dt C 3
1
i dt = eo (3–25)
C 3

L R

ei C eo

Figure 3–7 i
Electrical circuit.

72 Chapter 3 / Mathematical Modeling of Mechanical Systems and Electrical Systems

 EXAMPLE PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

A–3–1. Figure 3–20(a) shows a schematic diagram of an automobile suspension system. As the car moves
along the road, the vertical displacements at the tires act as the motion excitation to the auto-
mobile suspension system.The motion of this system consists of a translational motion of the cen-
ter of mass and a rotational motion about the center of mass. Mathematical modeling of the
complete system is quite complicated.
A very simplified version of the suspension system is shown in Figure 3–20(b). Assuming that
the motion xi at point P is the input to the system and the vertical motion xo of the body is the
output, obtain the transfer function Xo(s)兾Xi(s). (Consider the motion of the body only in the ver-
tical direction.) Displacement xo is measured from the equilibrium position in the absence of
input xi .
Solution. The equation of motion for the system shown in Figure 3–20(b) is

$ # #
mxo + bAxo - xi B + kAxo - xi B = 0

or
$ # #
mxo + bxo + kxo = bxi + kxi

Taking the Laplace transform of this last equation, assuming zero initial conditions, we obtain

Ams2 + bs + kBXo(s) = (bs + k)Xi(s)

Hence the transfer function Xo(s)/Xi(s) is given by

Xo(s) bs + k
=
Xi(s) ms + bs + k
2

k b xo

Center of mass

Auto body

P
Figure 3–20
(a) Automobile xi
suspension system;
(b) simplified
suspension system. (a) (b)

86 Chapter 3 / Mathematical Modeling of Mechanical Systems and Electrical Systems