TRANSIENT RESPONSE

INTRODUCTION: - As we are aware that the terminal characteristics of capacitors and

inductors are governed by differential relationships. The connection of these elements with the
resistors and energy sources will result in integro-differential (or) simply differential equations
with constant coefficients. The solutions of these equations in time – domain gives the
“TRANSIENT RESPONSE” of the system of equations. The time – domain response of the
circuit for different test signals is almost important to synthesize (or) design electronic circuits.
Whenever a circuit is switched from one condition to another, either by a change in the
applied source or a change in the circuit elements, there is a transition period during which the
branch currents and element voltages change from their former values to new values. The
period is called the “TRANSIENT STATE (or) NATURAL RESPONSE”. After the transient
period has passed, the circuit is said to be in the “STEADY STATE (or) FORCED
RESPONSE”. Thus, the total response of the network is the sum of its transient response and
steady state response.
Now, the linear differential equation that describes the circuit will have two parts to its
solution, the complementary function corresponding to the transient and the particular solution
corresponding to the steady state.
INITIAL VALUES OF NETWORK ELEMENTS
RESISTOR: -
If a circuit is purely resistive, it does not exhibit any transient response. Thus in the circuit, the
current instantaneously rises to its steady state value ie., i(t) t=0 R
V
i = , and there is no transient response.
R
V(t)
−
t = 0 → Represents the instant just prior to the closing of the switch at t = 0.
t = 0 + → Represents the instant immediately after closing of the switch at t = 0.
V
At t = 0 − → i = 0, but at t = 0 + → i =
R
INDCUTOR: -
t=0 L
If a circuit is purely inductor as shown in figure. i(t)

If the switch is closed at t = 0, by, applying KVL to the circuit

di
V =L for t > 0 + V(t)
dt
At t = 0 − , the current is zero, assuming the circuit to be relaxed [ie., No initial inductor current].
At t = 0 + , the current must still be zero, since the current through an inductor cannot become
zero instantaneously, even if it is not zero at t = 0 − .
∴ i = 0 At t = 0 +
Hence, it is obvious that at t (0 + ) , the inductor ‘L’ act as an open circuit. The equivalent circuit
at t (0 + ) is as shown in figure…
OC

i(t) ⇒ ‘L’ is replaced by an open circuit

V(t)
−
However, if at t (0 ) the inductor is already carrying a current due to a previously applied
forcing function, it would continue to flow at t (0 + ) , without change of magnitude.
Let ‘I0’ be the initial inductor current as shown in figure… i(t) t=0 L

I0

V(t)

1
The equivalent circuit at t (0 + ) is shown in figure…
OC

i(t)
I0
V(t)

‘L’ is replaced by open and ‘I0’ is replaced by equal current source.

CAPACITOR: - t=0 C
If the circuit contains pure capacitor as shown in figure.
If the switch is closed at t = 0 by, applying
KVL to the circuit i(t)

1
V = ∫ i dt for t > 0 + V(t)
C
dV
i=C
dt
−
At t = 0 , the voltage across capacitor is zero, assuming the circuit to be relaxed [ie., No initial
capacitor voltage]. Also current, i = 0 .
At t = 0 + , the voltage across capacitor must be zero, since the voltage across a capacitor cannot
become zero instantaneously even if it is not zero at t = 0 − . It means that, at t = 0 + , the capacitor
acts as Short Circuit. The equivalent circuit at t (0 + ) is as shown in figure…
SC
Hence ‘C’ is replaced by short circuit ⇒
i(t)

V(t)
−
However, at t = 0 , if there is a capacitor voltage due to previously applied forcing function,
then at t = 0 + also, it would remain without change in magnitude.
Let ‘V0’ be initial capacitor voltage as shown in figure…
t=0 C

i(t) + V0 −

V(t)
The equivalent circuit at t (0 ) is shown in figure…
+

i(t) SC
+ −
V0

V(t)
‘C’ is replaced by Short Circuit and ‘V0’ is replaced by an equal voltage source.
FINAL VALUES OF NETWORK ELEMENTS
We shall next see how we can obtain equivalent circuits under Steady state conditions
ie., at t = ∞ .
RESISTOR: -
A resistor obviously remains un effected. Hence a resistance R of a given network
remains as ‘R’ only in the equivalent circuit at t = ∞. also.
INDUCTOR: -
We have induced e.m.f in an inductor across ‘L’ then

2
 di
VL = L
dt
When Steady state has been reached ie., at t = ∞., there is no change of current
di
i.e., =0 ∴V L = 0
dt
Since, there is no inductor voltage, it implies that the inductor acts as short – circuit. Hence an
inductor acts as open – circuit at t = 0+, but it acts as short – circuit at t = ∞.
i(t) t=0 L

V(t)

Equivalent circuit at t = ∞. SC

i(t)
V(t)

CAPACITOR: -
The current through a capacitor is given as
dV
i = C C where VC Capacitor voltage
dt
At Steady state, there is no change of capacitor voltage
d VC
=0 ∴i = 0
dt
It implies that the capacitor acts as an open – circuit at t = ∞.

Hence a capacitor acts as short – circuit at t = 0+, but acts as open – circuit at t = ∞.
t=0 C

i(t)
V(t)

Equivalent circuit of t = ∞.
OC
i(t)

V(t)

SUMMARY:
™ The current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously.
™ Voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously.
™ At t (0+), an inductor acts as an open – circuit.
™ At t (0+), a capacitor acts as short – circuit.
™ At t (0+), with initial inductor current ‘I0’ is replaced by an equal current source with the
same polarity.
™ At t (0+), with an initial capacitor voltage ‘V0’ is replaced by an equal voltage source with
the same polarity.
™ At t (0+) and at t = ∞, a resistor remains as it is, without any change.

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 ™ An inductor acts as short – circuit, under Steady state conditions, for a forcing function
of constant magnitude like step (or) DC voltage.
™ A capacitor acts as open – circuit, under Steady state conditions, for a forcing function of
constant magnitude like step (or) DC voltage.
TRANSIENT RESPONSE IN TIME DOMAIN WITH CONSTANT INPUT
[DC EXCITATION]
RC CIRCUIT
The constant input as shown in figure….. is called step input (or) constant input. Since it
steps from 0 to V volts at a time t=0
Let us assume that the voltage is suddenly applied at t=0 to the RC circuit shown in
figure. Let us assume the initial charge on the capacitor is zero.
t=0
R

v
+

V v
C
i VC

t(Sec)
0
FIG : RC Circuit with Step Input
Q At t = 0 - VC (O - ) = 0
At t = 0 + VC (O + ) = 0 [Q Voltage across capacitor cannot change instantaneously]
Initially it act as short circuit
V
∴i (O + ) =
R
Let ‘i’ be the current flowing in the circuit when the switch is closed at t = 0. Using KVL,
the equilibrium equation is
1
Ri + ∫ i dt = v ….(1)
C
Differentiating the equation (1) with respect to time ‘t’.
di 1 di 1 ⎡ 1 ⎤
R + i =0⇒ + i = 0 ⇒ ⎢D + i=0 ….(2)
dt C dt RC ⎣ RC ⎥⎦
The equation (2) is a first order linear homogeneous equation. Hence the total solution
will have only complementary function, and particular integral is zero.
i(t ) = Ae −t / RC …. (3)
To evaluate the constant ‘A’ we will use the initial condition i.e.,
V
i(0+) =
R
V
i(0)|t=0 = A =
R
V −t / RC V
∴ i (t ) = e (or ) i (t ) = e −t / τ ….(4)
R R
This solution is called Natural response of the circuit and also called as the
complementary function. Where τ=RC is called the time constant of an RC circuit.
VOLTAGE ACROSS CAPACITOR:

[ ]
t
1 1 V V 1 −t / τ
VC = ∫ i dt = ∫ e −t / τ dt = e t

RC [−1τ ]
0
C C0R

4
 V
RC
(− RC ) e −t /τ [ ] = −V [e
t
0
−t / τ
] [
− 1 = V 1 − e −t / τ ] …..(5)

As ‘t’ is varying from 0 to ∞ the time response characteristics of current and voltage
across the capacitor from equations (4) and (5) are shown in figure.
V Response

63.2% VC
V
R
i

t in sec
0 τ
V −t / τ
The transient solution is a total solution of the circuits i.e., i(t)=iss+it = e . Where ‘iss’
R
is steady state value and ‘it’ is the transient value. The response of the circuit will depend upon
‘τ’. If ‘R’ and ‘C’ are larger then the circuit takes longer time to settle down to the new steady
state value.
TIME CONSTANT
The interpretation of the time constant as ‘the time interval during which the response of the
circuit starting from any point of time during the transient interval, would have reached its
final value if it had maintained its rate of change constant at the value it had at that point of
time”. If the time is equal to one time constant then VC = V(1-e-1) = 0.632V. The time constant
can be regarded as the time required for the transient response to attain 63.2% of the steady
state value starting from zero. In two, three, four (or) five time constants the time response
values would be 0.864, 0.95, 0.982 and 0.993 of its steady state value. For all practical purposes
most of the electrical instruments used for measurement of electrical quantities will have a least
count of 1% after approximately five time constants have elapsed.
RL CIRCUIT
The RL network is excited by a step input is shown in figure. Let us assume that at the
time t=0 the switch is closed and initially the current through the inductor is zero.
At t = 0 - iL (O - ) = 0 t=0
R
At t = 0 + iL (O ) = 0
+

[Q Current in the inductor cannot change instantaneously] +

Using KVL, the equilibrium equation is
di v
Ri + L = v ….(1) i L VL
dt
di R V ⎡ R⎤ V
+ i = ⇒ ⎢D + ⎥ i = ….(2)
dt L L ⎣ L⎦ L
The equation (2) is a first order differential equation and the solution gives the response
of the circuit. To get the solution we will obtain the transient part [complementary function]
and steady state part [particular integral] separately. The transient part of the solution is
obtained by solving the homogenous part of the differential equation by making forcing
function to zero.
⎡ R⎤
i.e., ⎢ D + ⎥ i = 0
⎣ L⎦
The general solution is of the form
− RL t
it = Ae …..(3)
Steady state part of the solution (or) particular integral is obtained from

5
 ⎡ R⎤ V V
⎢D + L ⎥ i = L ⇒ i = ⎡ R⎤
⎣ ⎦ L⎢D + ⎥
⎣ L⎦
To get the steady state part of the solution, substitute D=0 [for DC excitation].
V V
i ss = = ….(4)
R R
L*
L
The complete solution is
R
V − t
i = i ss + it = + Ae L
R
To evaluate the constant A, we use initial condition i(0 +)=0 At t = 0 +
V V V
i (0 + ) = + A ⇒ 0 = A + ⇒ A = −
R R R
∴The complete solution is

i (t ) =
V V − RL t V
R R R
[
− e = 1 − e −t / τ ] ….(5)
L
Where ‘τ’ is the time constant and is equal to
R
VOLTAGE ACROSS THE INDUCTOR:
di
The voltage across the inductor V L = L
dt
⎡V
( ) ⎤
d ⎢ 1 − e −t / τ ⎥
⇒ VL = L ⎣
R ⎦ = VL ⎛ 1 ⎞ e −t / τ = VL * R e −t / τ = Ve −t / τ
⎜ ⎟ …….(6)
dt R ⎝τ ⎠ R L
As ‘t’ is varying from 0 to ∞ the time response characteristics of current and voltage
across the inductor from equations (5) & (6) are shown in figure……
Response
V
R

VL

t in sec
0
TIME CONSTANT
If the time is equal to one time constant then VL = V(e-1) = 0.3678 Volts. The time constant can
be regarded as the time required for the transient response to attain 36.78% of initial value.
RLC CIRCUIT
The behaviour of an RLC series circuit with constant t=0
R L
excitation is presented here. Such RLC circuits are of
great importance, since they occur, in many practical +
situations. In the figure shown above. A battery of
voltage ‘V’ is suddenly applied to the series RLC v
circuit with no-initial current in the inductor and i
C
initial charge on the capacitor
At t = 0 - iL (0 -) = 0 ; VC (0 -) = 0
At t = 0 + iL (0+) = 0; VC (0 +) = 0

6
 Applying KVL, the equilibrium equation is
di 1
Ri + L + ∫ i dt = V ….(1)
dt C
Differentiating with respect to time, ‘t’
di di 2 1 di 2 R di 1 ⎡ R 1 ⎤
R +L 2 + i=0⇒ 2 + + i = 0 ⇒ ⎢D 2 + D + i=0 ….(2)
dt dt C dt L dt LC ⎣ L LC ⎥⎦
This is a second order differential equation and it is a homogeneous equation.
The solution of this equation is of the form
i= Ae
m1t
+ Be m2 t …..(3)
Where ‘A’ and ‘B’ are constants to be determined from the initial conditions of the
network and m1 and m2 are the roots of characteristic equations.
R 1
D2 + D + =0
L LC
The roots of the characteristic equation are
2
R ⎛R⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
− ± ⎜ ⎟ − 4⎜ ⎟
⎝ LC ⎠ − R
2
L ⎝L⎠ ⎛ R ⎞ 1
m1 , m2 = = ± ⎜ ⎟ −
2 2L ⎝ 2L ⎠ LC
The response of the network depends on the nature of the roots m1 and m2. Also depend
up on the value under radical. Three cases of these roots are explained below.
2 2
⎛ R ⎞ 1 ⎛ R ⎞ 1
CASE 1 : When ⎜ ⎟ − is positive. In this case ⎜ ⎟ > . Hence the roots are
⎝ 2L ⎠ LC ⎝ 2L ⎠ LC
negative real. The response of the circuit is with out oscillations as shown in figure, curve 1. In
this case the final value is reached more slowly and is said to be over damped.
2 2
⎛ R ⎞ 1 ⎛ R ⎞ 1
CASE 2 : When ⎜ ⎟ − is equal to zero. In this case ⎜ ⎟ = . Hence the roots are
⎝ 2L ⎠ LC ⎝ 2L ⎠ LC
R
equal to − . In this case the response rises faster than curve 1 without any oscillations and
2L
no over-shoot on the final value. This response is called critically damped and is shown by
curve 2 in figure. The time of response is shortest.
2 2
⎛ R ⎞ 1 ⎛ R ⎞ 1
CASE 3 : When ⎜ ⎟ − is negative i.e., ⎜ ⎟ < then the roots m1 and m2 are
⎝ 2L ⎠ LC ⎝ 2L ⎠ LC
complex conjugates with negative real parts. The response of the system is oscillatory with
over shoots on the final value. This response is termed as under damped. Such a response is
often said to be ringing. The under damped behaviour is shown by curve 3 in figure.

Curve (3)
i

Curve (1)

Curve (2)

t in sec
0 FIG : RESPONSE OF THE CIRCUIT

7
THE EXPRESSION FOR CIRCUIT CURRENT
The expression for current of an RLC series circuit may be written as
d 2i di
2
+ 2ζω n + ω n2 i = 0
dt dt
Whose roots are m1 , m2 = −ζ ω n ± ω n ζ 2 − 1 and the solution is
⎡ −ζ ω +ω ζ 2 −1 ⎤ t ⎡ −ζ ω −ω ζ 2 −1 ⎤ t
i(t ) = C1e ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
+ C 2 e ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
n n n n

The solution will have different farms depending up on the value of ‘ζ’. If ‘ζ’ is less than
one then R<RC and the response is under damped. If ‘ζ’ is equal to one then R=RC and the
response is critically damped. If ‘ζ’ is more than one then R>RC and the response is over
damped.
TRANSIENT RESPONSE WITH SINUSOIDAL INPUT
[AC EXCITATION]
RC CIRCUIT
Let a sinusoidal voltage i.e., v(t) = Vm Sin (ωt+θ) be suddenly applied at time t=0 to the
series RC circuit shown in figure….. assume the capacitor is initially unchanged.
t=0
R

v(t) = Vm Sin(ωt+θ) ~ i
C

At t = 0 - V (0 -) = 0
At t = 0 + V (0 +) = 0
And Vm and θ are constants. Applying KVL, the equilibrium equation is
1
C∫
Ri + i dt = Vm Sin(ω t + θ ) ….(1)
Differentiating with respect to time, ‘t’
di 1
R + i = Vm ω Cos(ω t + θ) …..(2)
dt C
di 1 V ω
⇒ + i = m Cos (ω t + θ )
dt RC R
⎡ 1 ⎤ V mω
⇒ ⎢D + i= Cos (ω t + θ ) ….(3)
⎣ RC ⎥⎦ R
The complementary function (or) transient part of the above differential equation is
it = K 1e − t / RC = K 1 e − t / τ ….(4)
Where τ=RC Time constant
The steady state part of the solution of equation (1) is as follows. Let us assume that the
particular integral is of the form
i p (or )i ss = A Cos (ω t + θ ) + B Sin(ω t + θ )
di p
Where = − A Sin(ω t + θ )ω + B Cos (ω t + θ )ω
dt
= − Aω Sin(ω t + θ ) + Bω Cos (ω t + θ )
Substituting in equation (2) we have

8
 R[-Aω Sin (ω t + θ ) + BωCos (ω t + θ ) ]+
1
[ACos (ω t + θ ) + BSin(ω t + θ )]
C
= Vm ωCos (ω t + θ )
⎡B ⎤ ⎡ A⎤
− AR ω Sin (ω t + θ ) + BR ω + Cos (ω t + θ ) = Vmω Cos (ω t + θ )
⎢⎣ C ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ C ⎥⎦
Equating L.H.S. and R.H.S. we have
B B B
− ARω = 0 ⇒ ARω = ⇒ A = ….(5)
C C RCω
A B
BRω + = Vmω ⇒ BRω + = Vmω [Q from equation (5)]
C RC 2ω
⎡ R 2 C 2ω 2 + 1 ⎤ Vm RC 2ω 2 Vm R
⇒ B⎢ ⎥ = V ω ⇒ B = (or) B =
⎣ RC ω ⎦ ( R C ω + 1) ⎡ 2 1 ⎤
2 m 2 2 2

⎢ R + C 2ω 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Vm R 1 Vm
Now, A = * =
⎡ 2 1 ⎤ RCω ⎡ 2 1 ⎤
R + C ω R +
⎢
⎣ C ω ⎥⎦
2 2 ⎢
⎣ C ω 2 ⎥⎦
2

Then steady state solution is given by

Vm Vm R
i ss = Cos (ω t + θ ) + Sin(ω t + θ )
⎡ 2 1 ⎤ ⎡ 2 1 ⎤
Cω ⎢ R + 2 2 ⎥ ⎢ R + C 2ω 2 ⎥
⎣ C ω ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Vm ⎡ Cos (ω t + θ ⎤
= ⎢ + R Sin(ω t + θ )⎥ ……(6)
⎡ 2 1 ⎤⎣ Cω ⎦
⎢ R + C 2ω 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
The above expression can be written as single sinusoidal function with phase angle ‘φ’.
The equation (6) can be written as
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
Vm ⎢ Cos (ω t + θ ) R Sin(ω t + θ ) ⎥
i ss = + ……(7)
⎛ 2 1 ⎞⎢ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎥
⎜ R + 2 2 ⎟ ⎢ Cω ⎜ R + 2 2 ⎟ ⎜R + 2 2 ⎟ ⎥
2 2

⎝ C ω ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ C ω ⎠ ⎝ C ω ⎠ ⎥⎦ R
φ
From the impedance triangle of the circuit shown in figure, we get
1
1
Cosφ =
R
; Sinφ = Cω Z Cω
⎛ 2 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 1 ⎞
⎜R + 2 2 ⎟ ⎜R + 2 2 ⎟
⎝ C ω ⎠ ⎝ C ω ⎠
Hence equation (7) reduced to
iss =
Vm
[Sinφ Cos(ω t + θ ) + Cosφ Sin(ω t + θ )]
⎛ 2 1 ⎞
⎜R + 2 2 ⎟
⎝ C ω ⎠
Vm
iss = Sin(ω t + θ + φ ) ……..(8)
⎛ 2 1 ⎞
⎜R + 2 2 ⎟
⎝ C ω ⎠
1
Where φ = Tan −1 Impedance angle of the circuit.
ω CR

9
 Vm
The equation (8) is similar to Sin (ωt + θ + φ ) which is same as steady state value of
Z
current in a RC circuit.
V
i.e., i ss = m Sin(ω t + θ + φ ) Leads the voltage by angle ‘φ‘.
Z
The complete solution is
Vm
i (t ) = Ke − t / τ + Sin(ω t + θ + φ ) ….(9)
Z
The constant ‘K’ is evaluated using initial condition i.e., from equation (1) and
substituting VC(O +) = 0
V
At t = 0 + ; Ri = Vm Sinθ ⇒ i (0 + ) = m Sinθ
R
Substituting initial conditions in equation (9) we get
Vm V
Sinθ = K 1 + m Sin(0 + θ + φ )
R Z
⎛ 2 1 ⎞ −1 1
Where Z = ⎜ R + s 2 ⎟ & φ = Tan
⎝ Cω ⎠ ω CR
V V
∴ K = m Sinθ − m Sin(θ + φ )
R Z
∴The complete solution is given by
⎡V V ⎤ V
i (t ) = ⎢ m Sinθ − m Sin(θ + φ )⎥ e −t / τ + m Sin(ω t + θ + φ ) ………(10)
⎣R Z ⎦ Z
RL CIRCUIT
Consider a RL Circuit is shown in figure. Let us assume there was no initial current in
the inductor. t=0
R

v(t) = Vm Sin(ωt+θ) ~ i
L

At t = 0 - iL (0 -) = 0
At t = 0 + iL (0 +) = 0
Applying KVL, the equilibrium equation is
di
Ri + L = Vm Sin(ω t + θ ) ….(1)
dt
di R V
⇒ + i = m Sin (ω t + θ )
dt L L
⎡ R ⎤ V
⇒ ⎢ D + ⎥ i = m Sin (ω t + θ ) ….(2)
⎣ L⎦ L
The complementary function (or) transient part of the above differential equation is
− RL t
it = K 2 e = K 2 e −t / τ ….(3)
L
Where τ= Time constant
R

10
 The steady state part of the solution of equation (1) as follows. Let us assume that the
particular integral is of the form
i p = A Cos (ω t + θ ) + B Sin(ω t + θ )
di p
Then = − Aω Sin (ω t + θ ) + Bω Cos (ω t + θ )
dt
Substituting in equation (1) we have
R [A Cos (ω t + θ ) + B Sin (ω t + θ ) ] + L [-Aω Sin (ω t + θ ) +Bω Cos (ω t + θ ) ]
= Vm Sin (ω t + θ )
(BR-ALω) Sin (ω t + θ ) + (AR+BLω) Cos (ω t + θ ) = Vm Sin (ω t + θ )
Equating L.H.S. and R.H.S. we have
BLω
AR + BLω = 0 ⇒ A = −
R
BL2ω 2 ⎡ R 2 + L2ω 2 ⎤ Vm R
BR − ALω = Vm ⇒ BR + = Vm ⇒ B ⎢ ⎥ = Vm (or) B = 2
R ⎣ R ⎦ ( R + L2ω 2 )
Vm RLω V Lω
∴A= − = 2 m 2 2
R( R + L ω ) ( R + L ω )
2 2 w

∴ The steady state solution is given by

i ss = 2 m 2 2 [R Sin(ω t + θ ) − ω L Cos (ω t + θ )]
V
….(4)
(R + L ω )
The above expression can be written as single sinusoidal function with phase angle ‘φ’.
The equation (4) can be written as
Vm ⎡ R Lω ⎤
i ss = ⎢ Sin(ω t + θ ) − Cos (ω t + θ )⎥ ...(5)
( R 2 + L2ω 2 ) ⎢⎣ ( R 2 + L2ω 2 ) ( R 2 + L2ω 2 ) ⎥⎦
From the impedance triangle of the circuit shown in figure we get
R Lω
Cosφ = ; Sinφ =
(R + L ω )
2 2 2
( R + L2ω 2 )
2

Z
Lω
Hence the equation (5) is reduced to φ
i ss =
Vm
[Cosφ Sin(ω t + θ ) − Sin φ Cos(ω t + θ )] R
(R + L ω )
2 2 2

Vm
i ss = Sin(ω t + θ − φ ) …..(6)
( R 2 + L2ω 2 )
ωL
Where φ = Tan −1 Impedance angle of the circuit.
R
V
The equation (6) is similar to m Sin(ωt+θ-φ) which is same as steady state value of
Z
current in a RL circuit.
V
i ss = m Sin (ω t + θ − φ ) Lags the voltage by an angle φ.
Z
The complete solution is
−Rt
Vm
i = K 2e L
+ Sin(ω t + θ − φ ) ….(7)
Z
The constant K2 is to be evaluated using initial condition i.e., i(0+) = 0 in equation (7)

11
 Vm V
0 = K2 + Sin(0 + θ − φ ) ⇒ K 2 = − m Sin(θ − φ ) …..(8)
Z Z
∴The complete solution is
⎡ −Rt
⎤
i(t ) =
Vm
Z
⎢ Sin (ω t + θ − φ ) − Sin (θ − φ ) e L
⎥ (or) =
Vm
[ ]
Sin(ω t + θ − φ ) − Sin(θ − φ )e −t / τ …..(9)
⎣ ⎦ Z
In equation (9) the first term gives the steady state response of the current which is
ωL
sinusoidal and Lagging the applied voltage by an angle φ = Tan −1 . The second part gives
R
the transient response which is reduced to zero in short time.
RLC CIRCUIT
Consider a series RLC circuit as shown in figure. Let us assume that no-initial current in the
inductor and no-initial charge in the capacitor.
t=0
R L

v(t) = Vm Sin(ωt+θ) ~ i
C

At t = 0 - iL (0 -) = 0; VC (0 -) = 0
At t = 0 + iL (0 +) = 0; VC (0 +) = 0
Applying KVL, the equilibrium equation is
di 1
Ri + L + ∫ i dt = Vm Sin(ω t + θ ) ….(1)
dt C
Differentiating with respect to time, ‘t’
di di 2 1
R + L 2 + i = Vmω Cos(ω t + θ ) …..(2)
dt dt C
di 2 R di 1 V ω
⇒ 2 + + i = m Cos(ω t + θ )
dt L dt LC L
⎡ R 1 ⎤ Vmω
⇒ ⎢D 2 + D + i= Cos(ω t + θ ) ….(3)
⎣ L LC ⎥⎦ L
The steady state (or) particular solution can be obtained as follows :
Let i p = A Cos (ω t + θ ) + B Sin(ω t + θ )
di p
Then = − Aω Sin(ω t + θ ) + Bω Cos (ω t + θ )
dt
2
di p
2
= − Aω 2 Cos (ω t + θ ) − Bω 2 Sin(ω t + θ )
dt
Substituting in equation (2) we have
1
[A Cos (ω t + θ ) + B Sin (ω t + θ ) ] + R [-Aω Sin (ω t + θ ) +Bω Cos (ω t + θ ) ]
C
+ L [-Aω2 Cos (ω t + θ) -Bω2 Sin (ω t + θ) ] = Vmω Cos (ω t + θ )
⎡B ⎤ ⎡A ⎤
⇒ ⎢ − ARω − BLω2 ⎥ Sin(ω t + θ) + ⎢ + BRω − ALω2 ⎥ Cos(ω t + θ) = Vm ω Cos(ω t + θ)
⎣C ⎦ ⎣C ⎦
Equating L.H.S. and R.H.S. we have
B ARω 1
− ARω − BLω2 = 0 ⇒ −Bω2 − + =0
C L LC

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 ⎛ ωR ⎞ ⎡ 2 1 ⎤ ⎛ ωR ⎞ ⎛ 2 1 ⎞
⇒ −A ⎜ ⎟ − B ⎢ω − = 0 ⇒ A ⎜ ⎟ + B ⎜ ω − ⎟=0
⎝ L ⎠ ⎣ LC ⎥⎦ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ LC ⎠
A BRω A Vm ω ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎛ Rω ⎞ Vm ω
+ BRω − ALω2 = Vm ω ⇒ −Aω2 + + = ⇒ −A ⎢ω2 − ⎥ + B⎜ ⎟=
C L LC L ⎣ LC ⎦ ⎝ L ⎠ L
⎡ω2 − 1 ⎤ ⎡− ω2 + 1 ⎤
⎢ LC ⎥⎦ ⎢ LC ⎥⎦ ⎧⎡ 1 ⎤ ω2 R 2 ⎫ ω2 RVm
2

Q A = −B ⎣ =B⎣ ⇒ B ⎨⎢− ω2 + + 2 ⎬=
⎛ ωR ⎞ ⎛ ωR ⎞ ⎩ ⎣ LC ⎥⎦ L ⎭ L2
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠
⎛ Rω2 ⎞ ⎡− ω2 + 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 − ω2 ⎤
Vm ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ V ω
⎝ L ⎠ ⎢⎣ LC ⎥⎦
m ⎢⎣ LC ⎥⎦
∴B = & ∴ A = B =
⎧⎡ 1 2
ω2 R 2 ⎫ ⎛ ωR ⎞ ⎧ 1 2
ω2 R 2 ⎫
⎨⎢ − ω2 ⎤⎥ + 2 ⎬ ⎜ ⎟ L ⎨⎛⎜ − ω2 ⎞⎟ + 2 ⎬
⎩⎣ LC ⎦ L ⎭ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎩⎝ LC ⎠ L ⎭
1 ⎛ Rω2 ⎞
Vm ω⎡⎢ ⎤
− ω2 ⎥ Vm ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
ip = ⎣ LC ⎦ Cos(ω t + θ) + ⎝ L ⎠ Sin(ω t + θ)
⎧⎛ 1 ⎞
2
ω 2 2
R ⎫ ⎧⎛ 1 ⎞
2
ω 2 2
R ⎫
L ⎨⎜ − ω2 ⎟ + 2 ⎬ ⎨⎜ − ω2 ⎟ + 2 ⎬
⎩⎝ LC ⎠ L ⎭ ⎩⎝ LC ⎠ L ⎭
1 ⎛ Rω2 ⎞
Vm ω⎡⎢ − ω2 ⎤⎥ Vm ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
Let M Sinφ = ⎣ LC ⎦ ; M Cosφ = ⎝ L ⎠
⎧⎛ 1 ω2 R 2 ⎫ ⎧⎛ 1 ω2 R 2 ⎫
2 2
2⎞ 2⎞
L ⎨⎜ −ω ⎟ + 2 ⎬ ⎨⎜ − ω ⎟ + ⎬
⎩⎝ LC ⎠ L ⎭ ⎩⎝ LC ⎠ L2 ⎭

1 ⎧⎛ 1 2⎞ ω2 R 2 ⎫
2
⎡
Vm ω⎢ 2⎤
−ω ⎥ ⎨⎜ − ω ⎟ + ⎬
M Sinφ ⎣ LC ⎦ ⎩⎝ LC ⎠ L2 ⎭
Then = Tanφ = *
M Cosφ ⎧⎛ 1 2⎞
2
ω2 R 2 ⎫ ⎛ Rω2 ⎞
L ⎨⎜ −ω ⎟ + 2 ⎬ Vm ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎩⎝ LC ⎠ L ⎭ ⎝ L ⎠
ω ⎛ 1 ⎞ L
2
⎛ 1 2⎞ L 1⎛ L ω2 L ⎞ 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
= *⎜ − ω2 ⎟ * = ⎜ − ω ⎟ = ⎜
⎜ − ⎟⎟ = ⎜ − Lω ⎟
⎠ Rω ⎝ LC ⎠ ω R R ⎝ LCω ω ⎠ R ⎝ Cω
2
L ⎝ LC ⎠
⎧1 ⎡ 1 ⎤⎫
∴ φ = Tan − 1 ⎨ ⎢ − Lω⎥ ⎬
⎩ R ⎣ Cω ⎦⎭
∴ i p = M Sinφ Cos(ω t + θ) + M Cosφ Sin(ω t + θ) = M Sin ( ω t + θ + φ)
⎧1 ⎡ 1 ⎤⎫
Where φ = Tan − 1 ⎨ ⎢ − Lω⎥ ⎬ Impedance angle of the circuit.
⎩ R ⎣ Cω ⎦⎭
However, M = M 2 Cos 2φ + M 2 Sin 2φ
2
⎛ Rω2 ⎞ ⎧⎛ 1
2
2⎞
2
⎫
2 ⎛ 1 − ω2 ⎞ V ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
2
Vm ω ⎨⎜ 2
− ω ⎟ + R2 ⎬ 2
Vm ω ⎜2
⎟ m

= ⎝ LC ⎠ + ⎝ L ⎠= ⎩⎝ LC ⎠ ⎭
2 2 2
⎧
2 ⎛ 1 2⎞
2
ωR ⎫
2 2
⎧⎛ 1 2⎞
2
ωR ⎫
2 2
⎧
2 ⎛ 1 2⎞
2
ωR ⎫2 2
L ⎨⎜ −ω ⎟ + 2 ⎬ ⎨⎜ −ω ⎟ + 2 ⎬ L ⎨⎜ −ω ⎟ + 2 ⎬
⎩⎝ LC ⎠ L ⎭ ⎩⎝ LC ⎠ L ⎭ ⎩⎝ LC ⎠ L ⎭
Vm 2 ω2 Vm 2
= =
⎧⎛ 1 2⎞
2
ω2 R 2 ⎫ L2 ⎧⎛ 1 2⎞
2
ω2 R 2 ⎫
2
L ⎨⎜ −ω ⎟ + 2 ⎬ ⎨⎜ − ω ⎟ + ⎬
⎩⎝ LC ⎠ L ⎭ ω2 ⎩⎝ LC ⎠ L2 ⎭

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 2
⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 Lω 1 L
If ⎜ − Lω ⎟ = 2 2 + L2 ω2 − 2 = 2 2 + L2 ω2 − 2
⎝ Cω ⎠ Cω Cω C ω C
L2 ⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ L ⎡ 1
2 2
2ω2 ⎤ L2 ω4L2 2ω2 L2
If 2 ⎢⎜ − ω2 ⎟ ⎥ = 2 ⎢ 2 2 + ω4 − = + −
ω ⎣⎝ LC ⎠ ⎦ ω ⎣L C LC ⎥⎦ L2 C 2 ω2 ω2 LCω2
2
1 2L ⎛ 1 ⎞
= 2 2 +L ω −
2 2
=⎜ − Lω ⎟
Cω C ⎝ Cω ⎠
Vm2 Vm
∴M = 2 =
1
R 2 + ⎛⎜ − Lω ⎞⎟
2
⎛ 1
R2 + ⎜ − Lω ⎞⎟
⎝ Cω ⎠ ⎝ Cω ⎠
Vm
Thus i p = 2
Sin(ω t + θ + φ)
⎛ 1 ⎞
R +⎜
2
− Lω ⎟
⎝ Cω ⎠
The complementary function being equal to the DC response of RLC circuit.
2
⎛ R ⎞ 1
CASE 1 : Over damped, when ⎜ ⎟ >
⎝ 2L ⎠ LC
Vm
i = e αt ( C 1 e β t + C 2 e − β t ) + 2
Sin(ω t + θ + φ)
⎛ 1 ⎞
R2 + ⎜ − Lω ⎟
⎝ Cω ⎠
2
⎛ R ⎞ 1
CASE 2 : Critically damped, when ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ 2L ⎠ LC
Vm
i = e αt ( C 1 + C 2 t ) + 2
Sin(ω t + θ + φ)
1
R 2 + ⎛⎜ − Lω ⎞⎟
⎝ Cω ⎠
2
⎛ R ⎞ 1
CASE 3 : Under damped, when ⎜ ⎟ <
⎝ 2L ⎠ LC
Vm
i = e αt (C 1Cosβt + C 2 Sinβt ) + 2
Sin(ω t + θ + φ)
1
R 2 + ⎛⎜ − Lω ⎞⎟
⎝ Cω ⎠

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 THEOREMS FOR DETERMINATION OF INITIAL AND FINAL VALUES
Frequently it is desirable to determine the initial or final values of the response function
before completing the solution of a problem. Even these values can be determined by
inspection, the possibility of checking from the response transform is great value because the
inverse transform of the response is tedious. Before finding the inverse transform it is good to
find the initial and final values. These values can be found out by initial and final value
theorems.
INITIAL VALUE THEOREM: -
If f (t) and its first derivative are laplace transformable, then the initial value of f (t) is
f(0+) = Lim f(t) = Lim s F(s)
t→0 s→∞

PROOF:- Taking The First derivative of f(t)

∫∞ [ df(t) ] e-st dt = s F(s) – f(0+)
0 dt
Now let S approaches ∞, we have
Lim {[ df(t) ] e-st dt } = Lim [s F(s) – f(0+)]
S→∞ dt S→∞

Therefore, 0 = Lim [s F(s) – f(0+)]

S→∞

Therefore, Lim [s F(s)] = f(0+)

S→∞

FINAL VALUE THEOREM:-

If f(t) and its first derivative are laplace transformable, then the final value of f(t) is
Lim [f(t)] = Lim s F(s)
t→∞ S→0

df (t )
PROOF:- Taking the laplace transform on . We have,
dt
∫∞ [ df(t) ] e-st dt = s F(s) – f(0+)
0 dt
Now let S approaches zero
Lim ∫∞ [ d f(t) ] e-st dt = Lim [s F(s) – f(0+)] …………….(1)
S→0 0 dt S→0

∫∞ [ d f(t) ] dt = Lim [ d f(t) ] dt = Lim [ f(t) – f(0+) ] …………….(2)

0 dt t→∞ dt t→∞

From equations 1 & 2 we have

Lim [ f(t) ] = Lim [ sF(s) ]
t→∞ S→0

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