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PHY S.2 NOTES

Hooke's Law, discovered by Robert Hooke in 1678, states that the force exerted on a spring is directly proportional to its extension until the elastic limit is reached, beyond which permanent deformation occurs. The document outlines an experiment to verify Hooke's Law using a spring and various weights, demonstrating the relationship between force and extension. It also discusses the concepts of beams in structures, detailing how they experience tensile and compressive stresses and the importance of understanding ties and struts in structural engineering.

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5 views

PHY S.2 NOTES

Hooke's Law, discovered by Robert Hooke in 1678, states that the force exerted on a spring is directly proportional to its extension until the elastic limit is reached, beyond which permanent deformation occurs. The document outlines an experiment to verify Hooke's Law using a spring and various weights, demonstrating the relationship between force and extension. It also discusses the concepts of beams in structures, detailing how they experience tensile and compressive stresses and the importance of understanding ties and struts in structural engineering.

Uploaded by

kiddu tonny
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Hooke’s Law

In 1678, Robert Hooke wrote about his discovery of elasticity. He used a spring in
his investigations.
In his investigations he found out that or some force give force spring would be
stretched a regained it original shape after the force being removed.
But when the force was increased, he noticed that the spring never regained it
original length.
This happens when the elastic limit is exceeded.

What is the elastic limitation ?

This is a point below which a spring will recur to its original length when the load
(force) is removed.

The spring on the left is showing elastic deformation – above


the elastic limit, the spring will be stretched out of shape and
will not return to its original length.

This is known as plastic deformation.

Activity : Verify Hooke’s law

What you need:


✓ Retort stand
✓ A spring (helical form)
✓ 6 100g masses
✓ 1 100g mass hanger
✓ A pointer
✓ A meter rule

What to do:

1. Set up the apparatus as shown above.


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2. Attach a pin at the lower end of the spring to act as the pointer.
3. On the lower end of the spring, attach a mass hanger and record the initial
position of the pointer as Po on the meter rule.

Po

4. Add a mass M = 100g on the mass hanger and note the new position, P, of
the pointer.
5. Calculate the extension, x, of the spring.

Po
Extension, x = P - Po
P

6. Calculate the the force, F due to the mass M suspended on the spring.
7. Repeat procedures from 4 to 6 with their masses M = 200, 300, 400, 500
and 600g.
8. Tabulate your results in the a suitable table.

M (g) P (cm) x (cm) F (N)


100
200
300
400
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500
600

9. Plot a graph of F against x.

Conclusion
We can see from the graph that as the stretching force Incase’s the extension of
the spring also increases. This agrees with our prediction.
At some point on our graph the line is straight up to a certain point. We can say;
“The stretching force is directly proportional to the extension up to a certain limit
known as limit of proportionality”.

This is Hooke’s law.


Can you state Hooke’s law?

Hooke’s law graph (strain – stress curve)

This illustrate that as force increases also extension increases linearly and after a
certain point that is elastic limit, the curve becomes non linear. Thus up to point A
Hooke’s law is valid and the area under the curve up to this point is referred to as
Hooke’s law region. In the region A to B, force and extension are no longer held
proportional. Thus Hooke’s law is not valid in this zone. Beyond this, the body can
not retrace back t its original shape and size and the body will start deforming and
is said to be permanent deformation.

Explanation of the graph


(a) Proportional limit OA
This is a region that obeys Hooke’s law. In the region, the ratio of stress to
strain give the proportionality constant Young’s modulus
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(b) Elastic limit A
It is the point in the graph up which the material returns to its original length
when the load acting on it is completely removed beyond this limit the
material does not regain it original length.

(c) Yield point B


It is defined as the point at which the material starts to deform plastically.
After the yield point is passed, permanent plastic deformation starts. There
are two yield points;
(i) Upper yield point (ii) lower yield point

(d) Ultimate stress point


This refers to the maximum stress that a material can endure before failure.
Beyond this point, failure occurs.

(e) Fracture or breaking point


This is the point on the graph at which the failure of the material takes place.

What is the use of Hooke’s law graph?

The graph or diagram provide graphical measurement of strength and


elasticity of the material. Also the behavior of of the materials an be studied
with help of the stress – strain diagram or graph., which makes it easier to
understand application of the materials.

Beams

A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally a


cross the beam’s axis. Any structure may contain beams, such as automobile
frame, aircraft components a chines frames and other mechanical or structural
systems.

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Forces on loaded beams

Force on beams induce internal compression, tensile and shear stresses.


Typically under gravity loads, the beam bends into a slightly circular arc.

Neutral
line

Fig: Unloaded beam Fig: Loaded beam bending

Under load, the beam will bend and the top will experience compression
while the bottom will experience tension. So there will be compressive
stresses at the top and tensile stresses at the bottom.

We assume that through the beam there is a point where there are no stresses
ie no compression and no tension. This point is the neutral axis.

How to draw stress lines.

➢ Draw a section of the


beam showing the
region under
compression and that
under tension and the
neutral axis as shown aside.

➢ Draw stress lines from the


slanting line touch the
normal axis.

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From the diagram it is clearly seen that maximum compressive stresses are on
the top and maximum tensile stresses are at the bottom and all decrease as
they approach the neutral line.

How to reduce the stresses

When constructing buildings, metals are added to concrete. This makes the
stresses in the structure to be reduced. Though the structure still experiences
compression forces, the tensile forces are taken by the metals which are the
steel tendons. These are known as prestressed concrete beams, and are
fabricated to produce a compression greater than the expected tension under
loading conditions.

Application of prestressed concrete

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Structures

Structures are made by combining beams to form a framework for supporting


different loads.
The example os structure are shown below.

Fig: Bridges

Fig: Water tank stands

Fig: Roofing of house

An understanding of the terms, “struts” and “ties” is important. Al structures


have forces action on them. You should understand that the tensile,
compressive and shear forces act in these structures. The part of the structure
that has a tensile force acting on it is called a TIE and the part that has a
compressive force acting on it is called a STRUT.

Let’s consider the cases below

(a) The Wall


The figure aside shows a beam held in one position by
help of a steel rod. Due to weight of the beam which
acts downwards, the steel rod is under tension so it is
known as a tie.
If the steel rod is removed the beam would move
downwards.

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(b) The Roof

The beams of the roof are under pressure caused by


the weight of the tiles on the roof. This may also be
the iron sheets. These beams are under-
compression. So they are struts.
The floor beam is being stretched and therefore it is
under tension. The floor beam is a tie.

(c) The flag pole

The wires on ether side os the flagpole sure being


stretched (tensile force).

Task:
Why is the pole under compression?

Activity:
In the structure below, identify the the beams which are ties and struts.

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