SOSC1859/Spring2025

Topic 3: Deviance & Crime

Deviance
-activities which do not conform to the norms of a particular community;
-a relative concept; (deviance is culturally defined)
-social reaction: positive sanction, negative sanction, toleration without formal sanction;

Crime
-activities which break the legal norms of a society and are punishable by law;
-social reaction: negative sanction applied if found/ reported, & convicted;

Non-sociological Explanations
Biological and psychological explanations look for the source of deviance in the biological or
psychological nature – pathology - of the individual. On the contrary, sociological explanations
look for the source in the nature of society.

Sociological Perspectives
(a) Structural-Functionalist Perspective
⚫ Functionalist theory
⚫ Structural strain theory
⚫ Structural & subcultural theory
(b) Interactionist Perspective
⚫ Labelling theory
(c) Conflict Perspective:
⚫ Marxist theory
⚫ Feminist theories

1. STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE

Structure:
The sources of crime and deviance should be found in the structure of society.

Functionalism:
⚫ Deviance is normal – it is a necessary part of all societies
⚫ Deviance is functional – it performs positive functions for society

1.1 Functionalist Theory (Durkheim: The Function of Crime & Deviance)

a. Value Consensus – a set of shared values, beliefs and norms in society

b. Deviance (a certain amount of deviance) - a normal & inevitable aspect of social life;

-deviance is functional:
(i) Defining the boundary of morality & thereby creates social solidarity (unity)
(ii) Opening up a space for change (progress)

[(i) functional in the sense that it helps maintain social order or social stability in reaffirming
the boundary between normal/ acceptable and deviant/ unacceptable behaviors, i.e. in
reinforcing the social norms and values.]

c. Punishment:
-function: not so much to remove crime as to “heal the wounds done to the collective sentiments”
(Without punishment the collective sentiments would lose their force to control behavior and
the crime rate would reach the point where it became dysfunctional.)

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Strength
- society generates deviance for its own well being

Criticisms
-It justifies whatever exists in terms of the functions it serves in maintaining social order. As such,
it tends to be conservative about rather than being critical of the present system.

-It overlooks the conflicts & inequalities generated in the social system.

-It leaves unanswered (a) why some people are more prone to deviance than others, and (b) why
certain forms of deviance are associated with particular groups etc.

1.2 Structural Strain Theory (Merton):

(a) value consensus (e.g. American value: money)

(b) social structure – people are located in different class positions, & therefore have different
access to institutionalized means to achieve socially shared goals

-Deviance: the result of discrepancy between social values/goals (culture) & institutionalized
means (social structure)

“the social and cultural structure generates pressure for socially deviant behavior upon people
variously located in that structure.”

Merton’s typology of personal adaptation

Adaptation types Cultural Goals Institutionalized Means Social Position
Conformity + +
Innovation + - Lower class
Ritualism - + Lower middle class
Retreatism - -
Rebellion +/- +/- (a rising class)

Strength:
➢ nature of society rather than the individual
➢ the culture
➢ the overall social structure

Query: Could Merton’s theory explain non-utilitarian crimes among the working class youths?

1.3 Structural & Subcultural Theory

⚫ Structural: positions of individuals or groups in the social structure

⚫ Subcultural: the subculture (values & norms) of a social group

-Deviance: the result of individuals conforming to the values & norms of a “deviant” group
-Socializing into the deviant subculture (reward & punishment)

⚫ Mechanism: differential socialization (differential association) – the differential processes of

being socializing into different subcultures with different norms and values

Cohen: Delinquent Subculture

• (Drawing on Merton) social structure: unequal access to opportunity

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• Going beyond Merton’s views on working-class deviance:

(i) collective response rather than individual response
(ii) non-utilitarian crime e.g. vandalism

• Collective solution to ‘status frustration’- rejection & reversion of the mainstream culture

• A delinquent subculture: “throughout there is a kind of malice apparent, an enjoyment of

the discomfort of others, a delight in the defiance of taboos.”

• Reward: recognition and prestige within the group

• Unanswered question: Why are there different types of deviant subcultures & acts?

Cloward & Ohlin: Delinquency & Opportunity

⚫ Agree with Merton that there is greater pressure on the working class to deviate because
they have lesser access to legitimate means for success

⚫ Criticism of Merton: only explain the “legitimate opportunity structure”, but fail to consider
the “illegitimate opportunity structure”

⚫ 3 different types of subculture  differential access to illegitimate opportunity structure:

(a) Criminal subculture
-access to illegitimate opportunity structure (organized adult crime/ utilitarian crime)
-socialization: skills, feelings, values, role models; criminal stratification

(b) Conflict subculture (e.g. gang violence)

-where adolescents have little access to both legitimate & illegitimate opportunity
structures

(c) Retreatist subculture (e.g. illegal drug use)

-where lower class adolescents fail in both the legitimate and illegitimate structures

Question for thought:

(1) Is there sufficient evidence that lower class people tend to commit more crime and deviance?

CRIME & OFFICIAL STATISTICS

⚫ theories are mostly based on official statistics

⚫ official statistics show that the working class, the young, males and members of some ethnic
minorities are more likely to commit crimes than the others

⚫ unrecorded crimes
⚫ thinking that the offence was trivial or that the police could not do anything
⚫ fear of reprisals
⚫ fear or dislike of the police
⚫ thinking it’s a private matter
⚫ insufficient evidence

⚫ white-collar crime underestimated e.g. bribery, professional misconduct, misuse of trademarks

⚫ Under-detected: “crimes without victims”
⚫ Under-reported: both parties involve wrong-doing

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⚫ Under-prosecuted: resources & skilled lawyers; administrative solutions (e.g. official

warnings only)

⚫ differential treatment of delinquents of different classes

2. INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE

2.1 Labelling Theory

Becker: “social groups create deviance by making the rules whose infraction constitutes deviance,
and by applying those rules to particular people and labelling them as outsiders” – [the importance
of societal reaction]

Focus: not on motivations & causes; but on:

(a) The process of interaction between (a) deviants and (b) those who define them as deviant
(Agents of social control e.g. family, school, doctors, police, judges and probation officers)

The definition of deviance is not fixed and clear cut but negotiated in the interaction situation
by the actors involved (e.g. the definition of mental illness). The interactionist perspective
emphasizes the importance of meanings the different actors bring to and develop within the
interaction situation.

(b) The effects of labeling on self-conception ( → more deviance? )

Lemert: (i) primary deviation; (ii) secondary deviation

Primary Deviation – deviant acts that are not (yet) publicly labelled (Lemert argues that the
search for the causes of primary deviation is largely fruitless and unimportant, having little
implications on the formation of an individual’s self-concept.)

Secondary Deviation – deviant acts that are “produced” by societal reaction (Lemert argues
that studies of deviance should focus on secondary deviation because it has major impact
on the individual’s self-concept, status in the community and future actions.)

(c) The effects of self-fulfilling prophecy - a prediction that causes itself to come true

(d) The definition of deviance itself -

⚫ power is involved in the definition of rules & norms
⚫ not possible to set up commonly agreed rules (in contrast to structural-functionalists);
⚫ rules are set down by the powerful group

2.2 Criticisms & Evaluation

(a) The origins of deviance?
(b) Labelling as Deterministic?
(c) Why the labelling? Why the laws? (e.g. Why should some people (& not others) be labelled?
Why are some activities are against the law & others not (e.g. smoking marijuana? cigarettes?)
-good in raising the question of power but not explaining power distribution in society

3. CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE

3.1 Marxist theory

Marxism: In a capitalist society, laws are made and administered by the state which serve
the interests of the ruling class (i.e. the capitalists)

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⚫ Who make the law? Who benefit?

⚫ Who break the law? Who get caught?
⚫ Why break the law? Why enforce the law?

Unequal & unfair distribution of wealth under capitalism:

“The real criminals in this society are not all the people who populate the prisons
across the state, but those people who have stolen the wealth of the world from the people.”
(Taylor et al. 1973)

The practice of law enforcement serves to support the capitalist system:

To “reinforce a prevalent ideology in this society that individuals, rather than institutions,
are to blame for social problems …”

Criticisms of Conventional Marxism

- Crime had not been eradicated in former Soviet Union and Eastern European countries
- Capitalism does not always produce high crime rates in some places (e.g. Switzerland)
- The legal system can work to prevent & prosecute illegal undertaking among capitalists
in many instances.
- Undue emphasis on corporate crime

3.2 Gender & Crime, and Feminist approaches

(i) Women tend to commit fewer crimes than men, why?

(a) Gender bias and the “masked” female offender (Pollak)

(b) Control theory – male-dominated patriarchal societies control women more effectively
than they do men; control operates at home, in public and at work
(c) Feminist explanations for female criminality:

• Liberal feminist: a rational response to gender discrimination

• Radical feminist: originating in patriarchy (male domination over female)
• Marxist feminist: women exploited by both capitalism and patriarchy

(ii) Crimes against women