PHILOSOPHY AND HUMAN EXISTENCE

LECTURE NOTE

BY

DR ISAH USMAN N.

COURSE CODE:212
Philosophy is a vast field that seeks to understand fundamental questions about
existence, knowledge, morality, mind, and language. Below is a breakdown of its
scope, notions, meaning, branches, and some of the core problems.

MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY

The word philosophy comes from the Greek words "philos" (love) and "sophia"
(wisdom), meaning the love of wisdom. It is a discipline that involves critical
thinking and analysis to explore fundamental truths about the universe and human
life. Philosophy seeks to answer questions that often do not have definite answers
but are crucial for understanding reality.

SCOPE OF PHILOSOPHY:

The scope of philosophy is broad and encompasses questions about:

Reality: What exists? What is real? Is there a God? Is the material world all there
is?

Knowledge: What can we know? How do we know what we know? Can we have
certainty in knowledge?

Ethics: What is right and wrong? How should we live? What is the best way to
treat others?

Mind and Self: What is the nature of consciousness? What is the self? Do we have
free will?

Language and Logic: How does language relate to thought and reality? What
makes an argument valid?

NOTIONS IN PHILOSOPHY:

Some key philosophical notions include:

Metaphysics: The study of the nature of reality, existence, and the universe.

Epistemology: The study of knowledge, belief, and the nature of truth.

Ethics: The study of morality and values, concerning what is good or right.

Aesthetics: The study of beauty, art, and taste.

Logic: The study of reasoning, argumentation, and the structure of valid inference.

BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY:

Philosophy is typically divided into several main branches:

Metaphysics: Concerned with the fundamental nature of reality, including

concepts like being, existence, time, and space.

Epistemology: Focuses on the nature, sources, and limits of knowledge and belief.

Ethics (Moral Philosophy): Deals with moral values and principles, including
questions of right and wrong.

Logic: Studies the principles of valid reasoning and argumentation, ensuring that
conclusions are logically derived from premises.

Aesthetics: Examines the nature of beauty, art, and taste, asking questions about
what makes something aesthetically pleasing.

Political Philosophy: Explores questions about justice, government, rights, and the
legitimacy of political structures.

Philosophy of Mind: Investigates the nature of consciousness, self-awareness, and

the mind-body relationship.

Philosophy of Language: Looks at the nature and function of language, how

words relate to meaning and communication.

PROBLEMS IN PHILOSOPHY

Some of the central problems in philosophy include:

The Problem of Free Will vs Determinism: Do humans have free will, or is

everything predetermined by causal laws?
The Mind-Body Problem: What is the relationship between the mind and the
body? Are they separate entities or different aspects of the same thing?

The Problem of Knowledge (Skepticism): How can we know anything for

certain? Can we trust our senses and reason?

The Problem of Evil: If God is all-powerful and all-good, why does evil exist?

The Meaning of Life: What is the purpose of life? Is there an inherent meaning, or
is it something we create ourselves?

The Nature of Reality (Metaphysical Problems): What is the nature of reality?

Is it only physical, or are there non-physical dimensions (such as the soul or
consciousness)?

Moral Relativism vs. Moral Objectivism: Are moral truths universal, or do they
vary across cultures and individuals

LOGIC AS AN INDISPENSABLE TOOL OF PHILOSOPHY

logic is indispensable in philosophy because it ensures clarity, rigor, and

consistency in the analysis of complex ideas. It is the foundation upon which sound
philosophical arguments are built and evaluated.

Logic is indeed an indispensable tool in philosophy for several key reasons:

1. Clarification of Thought: Logic helps clarify thoughts by breaking down

arguments into their fundamental components. This allows philosophers to avoid
ambiguity, ensuring that concepts are clearly defined and statements are precise.

2. Structure of Arguments: Logic provides the structure for constructing valid

arguments. In philosophy, it's important to distinguish between valid and invalid
reasoning. Logic helps in analyzing whether the conclusions drawn from premises
are logically sound, ensuring that philosophical reasoning is coherent and free of
contradictions.
3. Evaluation of Arguments: Logic is crucial for evaluating the strength of
arguments. Through logical analysis, philosophers can test the validity of premises
and conclusions, identify fallacies, and determine whether an argument is
convincing.

4. Consistency and Truth-Seeking: Logical consistency is central to philosophical

inquiry. By applying the principles of logic, philosophers aim to eliminate
contradictions in their theories, which helps in the pursuit of truth. If a
philosophical theory is internally inconsistent, it cannot be true.

5. Philosophical Methodology: Many branches of philosophy, such as

epistemology, metaphysics, and ethics, rely on logical methods. For instance,
epistemology uses logic to analyze knowledge claims, while ethics uses it to
evaluate moral arguments.

6. Universality: Logic is a universal tool that transcends cultural, linguistic, and

personal differences. This makes it particularly valuable in philosophy, where
diverse perspectives are often examined and debated. Logic provides a common
framework for engaging in these discussions.

SYLLOGISM

Syllogism is a form of reasoning where a conclusion is drawn from two given or

assumed premises. Each premise shares a term with the conclusion, and the terms
connect logically. The structure typically involves:

1. Major premise: A general statement.

2. Minor premise: A specific statement related to the major premise.

3. Conclusion: Deduces a relationship from the two premises.

Example:

Major premise: All humans are mortal.

Minor premise: Socrates is a human.

Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Symbolic Logic is the study of symbols and the logical relationships between
them. It uses symbols to represent logical statements and operators. Here are some
common symbols:

Propositions:

P,q ,r : Represent individual statements.

Logical Operators:

Negation (~p): "Not p."

Conjunction ): "p and q."

Disjunction (): "p or q."

Implication (): "If p, then q."

Biconditional (): "p if and only if q."

FIRST NINE RULE OF INFERENCE

The First Nine Rules of Inference in symbolic logic (often used in formal proofs)
are principles that justify the transition from premises to a conclusion. These rules
ensure valid reasoning.

1. Modus Ponens (MP) (Implication Elimination):

If and , then .

Example:

If it rains, the ground will be wet.

It rains.

Therefore, the ground will be wet.

2. Modus Tollens (MT) (Implication Elimination):

If and , then .

Example:

If it rains, the ground will be wet.

The ground is not wet.

Therefore, it did not rain.

3. Hypothetical Syllogism (HS):

If and , then .

Example:

If it rains, the ground will be wet.

If the ground is wet, the game will be canceled.

Therefore, if it rains, the game will be canceled.

4. Disjunctive Syllogism (DS):

If and , then .

Example:

It will either rain or be sunny.

It is not raining.

Therefore, it is sunny.

5. Simplification (Simp):

If , then .
Example:

It is raining, and the ground is wet.

Therefore, it is raining.

6. Conjunction (Conj):

If and , then .

Example:

It is raining. The ground is wet.

Therefore, it is raining and the ground is wet.

7. Addition (Add):

If , then .

Example:

It is raining.

Therefore, it is either raining or sunny.

8. Constructive Dilemma (CD):

If and , then .

Example:

If it rains, the ground will be wet. If it is sunny, it will be hot.

Either it rains, or it is sunny.

Therefore, either the ground will be wet, or it will be hot.

9. Destructive Dilemma (DD):

If and , then .

Example:
If it rains, the ground will be wet. If it is sunny, it will be hot.

Either the ground is not wet, or it is not hot.

Therefore, either it did not rain, or it was not sunny.

These rules form the foundation of logical deduction and are used to build formal
proofs in symbolic logic.

INFORMAL FALLACIES

Information fallacies refer to errors or flaws in reasoning that lead to invalid or

misleading conclusions. These fallacies often distort the truth and are commonly
used in debates, media, and everyday arguments. Below are some common types
of information fallacies:

1. Ad Hominem

Attacking the person making an argument rather than addressing the argument
itself.

Example: "You can't trust his argument on climate change; he's not even a
scientist."

2. Straw Man

Misrepresenting or exaggerating someone's argument to make it easier to attack or

refute.

Example: "So you're saying we should do nothing about poverty just because you
oppose higher taxes?"

3. False Dilemma (Black-and-White Fallacy)

Presenting only two options when there are actually more.

Example: "You're either with us or against us."

4. Slippery Slope

Arguing that one small step will inevitably lead to a chain of related events with
drastic consequences.
Example: "If we allow this law to pass, soon all our freedoms will be taken away."

5. Circular Reasoning (Begging the Question)

The argument's conclusion is assumed in its premise, essentially repeating the

point instead of proving it.

Example: "I believe in God because the Bible says so, and I believe the Bible
because it's the word of God."

6. Appeal to Authority

Using the opinion of an authority figure or institution as evidence without

evaluating the argument itself.

Example: "Dr. X believes this diet works, so it must be effective."

7. Hasty Generalization

Drawing a broad conclusion based on limited or insufficient evidence.

Example: "All politicians are corrupt because a few have been caught taking
bribes."

8. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc (False Cause)

Assuming that because one event followed another, it must have been caused by it.

Example: "After the new mayor was elected, crime went up. Therefore, the new
mayor caused the crime spike."

9. Appeal to Emotion

Manipulating an emotional response in place of a valid argument.

Example: "Think of the children! We must ban this video game."

10. Bandwagon (Appeal to Popularity)

Suggesting that something is true or right because it is popular or widely accepted.

Example: "Everyone else is doing it, so it must be okay."

11. Red Herring

Introducing an irrelevant topic to divert attention from the main issue.

Example: "Why worry about climate change when we have so many people
unemployed?"

12. False Equivalence

Making two opposing arguments seem equally valid, even when one is
demonstrably weaker.

Example: "Some people say climate change is real, while others disagree. Both
sides have a point.

LAW OF THOUGHT

The laws of thought are fundamental principles in logic that form the basis of
rational discourse and reasoning. There are three classical laws, which were
articulated by Aristotle and play a central role in traditional logic:

1. The Law of Identity:

This law states that "A is A." It means that every entity is identical to itself. In
formal logic, this principle is often expressed as "if something is true, then it is
true." For example, if "X is Y," then X is indeed Y and nothing else.

2. The Law of Non-Contradiction:

This law asserts that "A cannot be both A and not-A at the same time." In other
words, contradictory statements cannot both be true. If a statement is true, its
negation must be false. For example, "it cannot be both raining and not raining at
the same time in the same place."

3. The Law of Excluded Middle:

According to this law, "either A is true or not-A is true," with no middle ground.
For any proposition, either it is true, or its negation is true. There are no third
alternatives. For instance, a light switch is either on or off; it cannot be in some in-
between state.

NATURE OF ARGUMENT

The nature of an argument is fundamentally a structured attempt to persuade or

convince others of a particular point of view by presenting reasons or evidence in
support of a claim. It involves a process of reasoning, where statements (premises)
are offered to support a conclusion. Arguments are essential in various fields, such
as philosophy, law, science, and everyday communication, to resolve disputes,
explore ideas, and advance understanding. Key characteristics of the nature of an
argument include:

1. Reasoning and Logic:

Arguments are based on logical reasoning. The premises of an argument must be

connected in a way that logically leads to the conclusion.

There are two main types of reasoning:

Deductive Reasoning: Where the conclusion necessarily follows from the

premises. If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.

Inductive Reasoning: Where the conclusion is likely to be true based on the

premises, though it may not be guaranteed.

2. Premises and Conclusion:

An argument consists of one or more premises that are intended to provide support
for a conclusion.

Premises are the reasons or evidence presented in favor of the conclusion.

Conclusion is the statement or claim that the argument seeks to prove or establish.

3. Persuasion:
The ultimate goal of an argument is to persuade an audience of the truth or validity
of a claim. This can involve appeals to logic (logos), emotions (pathos), or
ethics/credibility (ethos).

A good argument does not rely on force or manipulation but on the strength of its
reasoning and evidence.

4. Validity and Soundness:

Validity: An argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the

premises. In other words, if the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true.

Soundness: An argument is sound if it is both valid and its premises are true. A
sound argument guarantees a true conclusion.

5. Critical Evaluation:

Arguments are subject to critical evaluation. Listeners or readers assess the validity
of the reasoning, the truth of the premises, and whether the conclusion follows
logically.

Arguments can be fallacious if they contain errors in reasoning, such as ad

hominem attacks, straw man arguments, or circular reasoning.

6. Open to Disputation:

Arguments are often presented in contexts where there is disagreement. They

invite challenges and counterarguments. This dialogical nature encourages debate
and deeper exploration of the subject.

7. Structured and Organized:

A well-constructed argument is clear, organized, and follows a logical progression

from premises to conclusion. The clarity of the argument helps the audience
understand and engage with it.

8. Purpose-Driven:
Arguments are often made with a specific purpose in mind: to prove a point, solve
a problem, or refute a counter-position. They are not simply expressions of opinion
but are designed to achieve a goal.

ARGUMENT

An argument in logic is a set of statements where one or more premises are offered
to support a conclusion. The validity of an argument depends on its logical
structure rather than the truth of its premises or conclusion.

Valid Argument

An argument is valid if and only if the conclusion follows logically from the
premises. That is, if the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true.

Example of a valid argument:

Premise 1: All humans are mortal.

Premise 2: Socrates is a human.

Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Even if the premises are false, as long as the structure is correct, the argument is
still valid.

Invalid Argument

An argument is invalid if the conclusion does not logically follow from the
premises, even if the premises are true. The premises might be true, but the
conclusion does not necessarily follow.

Example of an invalid argument:

Premise 1: All humans are mortal.

Premise 2: Socrates is a human.

Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is a philosopher.

In this case, the conclusion does not logically follow from the premises, making
the argument invalid.
The difference lies in the logical connection between premises and conclusion. An
argument can be valid with false premises but cannot be invalid if the reasoning
structure is correct.

LOGIC FORM

Logic Form refers to the abstract structure of a statement, stripping away its
content to reveal its logical form. This helps to evaluate arguments based on their
structure rather than the specifics of their content.

Deduction, induction, and inference are reasoning methods used to draw

conclusions based on given premises.

1. Deduction:

Definition: Deductive reasoning starts with a general statement or hypothesis and

examines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion. If the premises
are true, the conclusion must also be true.

Example:

Premise 1: All humans are mortal.

Premise 2: Socrates is a human.

Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Key Point: Deductive reasoning guarantees the truth of the conclusion if the
premises are true.

2. Induction:

Definition: Inductive reasoning involves drawing general conclusions from

specific examples or observations. Unlike deduction, inductive conclusions are not
guaranteed to be true but are likely or probable.

Example:

Observation: The sun has risen every day for the past year.

Conclusion: The sun will rise tomorrow.

Key Point: Induction is about probability rather than certainty; it's based on
observation and patterns.

3. Inference:

Definition: Inference is the process of drawing a conclusion from available

information, which could involve either deductive or inductive reasoning. In
general, inference refers to the act of deriving conclusions based on premises or
evidence.

Example:

Premise: The streets are wet.

Inference: It must have rained.

Key Point: Inferences can be based on either deductive or inductive reasoning, and
may vary in strength.

In Practice:

Deduction: Used in mathematical proofs and formal logic, where the correctness
of the conclusion depends on the structure of the argument.

Induction: Often used in science and everyday reasoning where patterns and
observations lead to probable conclusions.

Inference: A general term that encompasses both deduction and induction, as well
as other types of reasoning.

Would you like a specific example of these reasoning methods in a particular

context?

CREATIVE AND CRITICAL THINKING

Creative and critical thinking are two complementary processes that allow
individuals to approach problems and ideas from different perspectives. Here's a
brief breakdown of both:

Creative Thinking
Definition: Involves generating new, original, and innovative ideas. It's about
thinking outside the box and exploring different possibilities without limiting
yourself to conventional patterns.

Characteristics:

Open-mindedness

Brainstorming

Flexibility and imagination

Encourages free flow of ideas

Often associated with art, design, and innovation but applies to problem-solving in
all fields.

Critical Thinking

Definition: Involves analyzing, evaluating, and improving an idea, argument, or

process. It's about being logical, systematic, and disciplined in thinking,
questioning assumptions, and considering evidence.

Characteristics:

Analytical skills

Skepticism and questioning

Logical reasoning

Reflection and self-assessment

Often used to solve complex problems or make well-informed decisions.

How They Work Together

Creative thinking generates ideas, while critical thinking evaluates those ideas to
determine their viability. For example:

Creative process: You might come up with multiple solutions for a problem.

Critical process: You assess the feasibility, practicality, and potential outcomes of
each solution.When combined, creative and critical thinking lead to innovation,
improved problem-solving skills, and well-rounded decision-making. Would you
like examples of how these can be applied in real-world situations?

IMPACT OF PHILOSOPHY AND HUMAN EXISTENCE

Philosophy has significantly impacted human existence in various ways, shaping

our understanding of life, morality, knowledge, and the universe. Here are some
key areas where philosophy has played a crucial role:

1. Ethics and Morality: Philosophical inquiry has led to the development of

ethical theories that guide human behavior. Concepts such as utilitarianism,
deontology, and virtue ethics help individuals and societies navigate moral
dilemmas and make decisions that affect the well-being of others.

2. Existential Inquiry: Philosophers like Søren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche,

and Jean-Paul Sartre explored the nature of existence, freedom, and the search for
meaning. Their work encourages individuals to confront existential questions about
purpose, identity, and authenticity, influencing personal and cultural perspectives
on life.

3. Political Philosophy: Ideas about justice, rights, and the role of government, as
articulated by philosophers like Plato, John Locke, and John Stuart Mill, have
shaped political systems and ideologies. These philosophical frameworks inform
debates about democracy, individual liberty, and social j up: Philosophy examines
the nature of knowledge and belief, helping to define what constitutes truth and
understanding. This inquiry informs scientific methods and critical thinking,
fostering a culture that values rational inquiry and skepticism.

5. Metaphysics: Questions about the nature of reality, existence, and the universe
have profound implications for how humans perceive their place in the world.
Philosophical discussions about the nature of time, space, and being shape our
understanding of science and spirituality.

6. Cultural Influence: Philosophy has influenced art, literature, religion, and

culture, prompting individuals to explore complex themes such as love, suffering,
and the human condition. This interplay enriches cultural expressions and deepens
our appreciation of human experience.

7. Personal Development: Engaging with philosophical ideas can lead to personal

growth and self-reflection. Philosophy encourages critical thinking, enhances
emotional intelligence, and fosters open-mindedness, which can improve
relationships and decision-making.

PHILOSOPHY AND POLITICS

Philosophy explores fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values,

reason, and ethics. It often intersects with politics, examining how philosophical
theories influence political ideologies and systems.

Political Philosophy focuses on concepts such as justice, power, rights, and the role
of the state. Key figures include Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke,
Rousseau, Marx, and John Stuart Mill.

PHILOSOPHY AND HUMAN EXISTENCE

This area examines the nature of being human, including questions of identity,
purpose, and the essence of life. Existentialist philosophers like Sartre and
Heidegger explore themes such as freedom, choice, and the absurdity of existence.

PHILOSOPHY AND HUMAN CONDUCT

Human conduct refers to the actions and behaviors of individuals and groups.
Ethics, a branch of philosophy, studies the moral principles that govern behavior.
Different ethical theories (deontology, utilitarianism, virtue ethics) provide
frameworks for evaluating human conduct.

PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION

Religion can be viewed through philosophical lenses, examining its role in shaping
moral values, societal norms, and human existence. The relationship between
religion and politics is also significant, as religious beliefs can influence political
ideologies and practices.

PHILOSOPHY ANDHUMAN VALUES

Human values are the principles and standards that guide individual and collective
behavior. They include concepts like freedom, equality, justice, and respect.
Philosophical discussions about values often involve debates over moral relativism
versus moral absolutism.

PHILOSOPHYAND HUMAN CHARACTER

Human character pertains to the traits and qualities that define individuals. Virtue
ethics emphasizes the importance of character in ethical behavior. Philosophers
like Aristotle argue that developing a virtuous character is essential for achieving a
good life.

These topics are deeply interconnected, often influencing and shaping each other.
If you’d like to explore a specific area or have any questions, feel free to ask!