UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS

DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION

COURSE TITLE: BROADCAST/FILM PRODUCTION

COURSE CODE: MAS 770

TOPICS: Introduction to Television Production

• The television medium

• Production process
• Personnel in TV production.

Lecture Note prepared by:

Dr. Shaibu Husseini

Department of Mass Communication
University of Lagos, Akoka Yaba, Lagos
[email protected], 08033085993

Television

Television or what we simply refer to, as ‘TV’ is a

communication medium used for transmitting moving images
and sound. It is an iconic electronic device or mass medium
that is used to convey educational, informational and
entertainment programmes to its massive audience either in
colour, in black and white or both in colour and black and
white. Its compact nature which makes it an intimate medium
and its utility makes it not just an iconic mass medium but one
of ‘the greatest communication mechanism ever designed and
operated by man’’ (Onabanjo, 2005: 11)

So from our definition, it is clear that TELEVISION IS A VISUAL

MEDIUM which has a rare combination of images, words
(dialogue) and sound. It follows that any one producing or
writing for television will have to UNDERSTAND the medium’s
limitation and capabilities.

TELEVISION: (MERIT AND OPPORTUNITIES)

•One of the most powerful media of mass communication. It is

the most complete and dramatic of all mass media

•One is guaranteed concentration. People don’t have to move

around to watch TV. To enjoy it, you have to remain glued to it

•It is a highly social medium watched by individuals, families

and groups

•It is a visual medium that captures the imagination. It blends

sound, movement and colour

•It is applicable even to illiterates provided they can hear and

see

* Unlike newspaper, you don’t have to exert mental energy to

watch television

TELEVISION (LIMITATION)

•It is a transient medium although programmes can now be

recorded.

•It is time limited therefore Information is very limited. A

reason most news stories are very brief

•Limited audience

•Programming are most times not flexible

•May not function well if there is no power

•Expensive to own (luxury item to some people)

•Most of the content are high in entertainment and less in

information

•Target audience may be too busy to watch television

Production Process in TV production

There are three production phases: Pre-production, production

and post-production. We however argue that there should be a
production development stage because before any part of
production can begin, there is an idea that will be transformed
into a script or a screenplay if it is a television drama. Once the
script or screenplay is ready and a deal is in place, pre-
production can begin.

• Pre-production- this phase deals with all the preparations

and activities before the talents and crew move into the
studio or the field on the first day of production. It usually
consists of two stages. First stage includes all the
activities necessary for to transform the basic idea into a
workable concept or script and the second stage involves
the mobilization of all the production details- Man
(talents and crew), Materials (props, location and scripts),
Machine (camera, lights either for a single camera
production or a multi-camera production), Money (to pay
 talents and to rent or buy materials etc) and Time
(schedule for meetings, recee, production, scheduling and
airing). All these are worked out and pulled before the
next stage, which is the stage of PRODUCTION.

• PRODUCTION: this is the phase when the production

team enters the studio for rehearsals or for a video
recording session or head to the field for actual
production. It is called the stage of principal photography

• POST PRODUCTION: this is the phase where video and

audio editing is carried out after principal photography.
This phase includes editing, sound mixing, and any
special effects the project may need. For instance if a
director wants to create crowd noise for a scene, they
may bring in Background Actors during post-production
to record improvised conversations and to mimic the
indistinct chatter of a crowd. At this stage too, the
different post-production crews will put their finishing
touches on the project and when the director decides the
film is finished, it will move out of the post-production
phase to distribution. Other activities like colour
correction, graphics, special effect are also carried out at
this stage.

TELEVISION PRODUCTION ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

There are a lot of people who work behind the scene in

television production. While some are necessary for a
television production to be possible, others are optional
depending on the type and scale of the production. Billings
(2017) offers a list of personnel who are often found in
television production. They are grouped under: Production
team, Crew and Post-production crew as follows:
Production Team

Executive Producer
This role (interchangeable with the title of show runner,
considered the „auteur‟ of the program) is more abstract than
other roles in production, though likely the most crucial to the
production happening in the first place. The concept and
initiative for the programme often comes from the EP as they
are called for short. In commercial productions, an executive
producer is often the chief financial backer or production
company head. Occasionally, an executive producer/show
runner may have conceived the programmes idea, and will
develop its direction throughout the series, though wishes to
delegate the tasks of executing their idea to a producer.

Producer

In television, a producer is generally the primary person of

responsibility for the production. The programme may often
be their own brainchild and a producer’s role co-ordinates all
elements of production at its highest level. A talented producer
is adept at co-ordination - of crew and cast; administrative,
legal, financial, budgeting and scheduling issues, as well as
being the driving creative force. With all these issues and tasks
to consider, a talented producer is a great delegator, being
willing and able to pass on responsibility to trusted production
team members they have assembled.

Director
The role of director varies between programs filmed in-studio
and on- location shoots. A director of a multi-camera studio
program is responsible overall for the inner workings of the
control room, and the crew working within. He/she hold
responsibility of the final product of a program as it goes to air
live, trying to maintain quality output from the in-studio
camera operators; as well as vision switchers, audio operators
and graphic operators in the control room. A talented director
is knowledgeable of all equipment in studio, plus the broadcast
equipment it feeds in to. Similar to a floor manager, a good
director makes decisions quickly, communicates clearly, and
can react with a level head swiftly to unexpected occurrences,
understanding any occurrence in studio or the control room to
be expected. The director communicates to the crew-members
earpieces via a studio microphone. An on-location programmes
director carries out duties similar to what a film director may,
though the TV programmes vision and ultimate creative
responsibility lies with the producer - whereas in film, this
would be the director. The director’s tasks include directing
actors, co-coordinating the senior technical crew, as well as
holding the central authority for the execution of the day’s
filming on-set.

Assistant Director
On location-based programs, an assistant director acts as
somewhat of an intermediary between the director and the
cast and crew - this role is somewhat optional, and may depend
on the scale of the production. For live television productions
(and with regards to SYN TV’s live shows), the Assistant
Director may also keep time to make sure all segments are
running to the appropriate duration. The AD also counts ad
breaks in and out.

Assistant producer
As its name suggests, this role is the right-hand person to the
producer, and often the first line of delegation - perhaps tasked
with delegating to others in the crew, yet again. This role may
occasionally serve as the producer’s representative on
shooting days, ensuring the shooting goes to plan. Other
similarly-titled producer roles delegated by the head producer
may include a segment producer, tasked with being
responsible for a pre-taped segment’s production; or a daily
producer, who may hold responsibility for a particular day’s
production for a program which shoots live each weekday.

Writer
A writer’s role varies depending on the program. For a
narrative-based program, writers are tasked with forming a
screenplay to be filmed from. In programmes credits, the
person who conceived the broad structure of the story
(credited as “Story by...”) may have been different to the
person that filled that broad story out to a usable script
(credited as “Screenplay by...” - this credit is also used when a
script has been adapted from an existing work e.g. novel.) In a
studio-based program (i.e. talk show) a writer, or team of
writers may write jokes for a host’s monologue or similar
segments, depending on the type of program.

Casting director
A casting director casts actors or personalities to appear on
camera to suit each role in a script, as instructed by the
director/producer.

Crew

Production manager
A production manager’s role varies dependent on whether the
production is commercial in nature. In commercial
productions, the role is head of the administrative business of
the production, organizing the crew and its technical
requirements. A non-commercial production manager’s role
holds similar tasks of organizing the crew and tech
requirements, though may be less responsible for managing
and reporting the costs. A talented production manager has a
good mind for the practicalities of creating a TV program.

Floor Manager
In a studio-based program, the floor manager holds
responsibility for operation of the studio floor where filming
takes place, co-coordinating the talent, crew, props, set and
tech equipment - acting as the main line of communication
from the director within the control room. A good floor
manager is able to co-ordinate many tasks and variables with a
cool, even temperament and adapt flexibly and swiftly to the
frequent unexpected occurrences typical of many shoots. They
do this by communicating succinctly and clearly to the crew
members they co-ordinate. Additionally, a floor manager
ensures the set - with its many items and cables - is safe for all
cast, crew and visitors. They will be responsible (though able
to delegate) for checking that any props or required equipment
are available for use; may situate and turn on lights in the
absence of a lighting director; make announcements and
requests to crew and audience (including keeping order on the
set) as well as calling cues to begin the action.

Camera operator/Cinematographer/Director of
Photography

A camera op generally operates at the instruction of the

director, and the composition (or framing) of their shots may
be left to their own initiative, or instructed specifically to the
director’s desire. A talented camera op has a natural feel for
shot composition and light factors; takes instruction well, and
has good stamina and stays attentive on a long day’s shoot, in
addition to a good instinct to the action taking place.
Audio operator

Depending on the scale of production, sound can be handled by

a single audio operator. On larger productions however, these
roles can be broken up and delegated. In a small studio, this
role can advise on-air presenters and guests of the positioning
of their lapel or wireless microphones, while mixing the audio
output from these mics within the control room’s audio mixing
desk. In larger studios, a separate sound mixer would be
operating an audio mixing desk, keeping the various mic
outputs to a volume and quality suitable for broadcast.
Location shoots may simply require a crew member operating
a boom or shotgun mic to capture audio, while listening to the
output through headphones to ensure appropriate audio levels
are being achieved.

Boom operator
Whether in-studio or on location, a boom operator’s main task
is operating and placing a microphone from lengthy boom
poles. A boom op positions the mic to record audio as required,
ensuring the mic hovering above or near the action on-camera,
is out of shot. As this sometimes-heavy pole is on occasion held
for long lengths, a boom operator has physical strength and
stamina in holding the boom for extended periods.

Vision switcher
A vision switcher (or mixer) performs switching between the
different video sources - both from camera shots and videos to
be played during an in- studio shoot, selecting shots presented
before them on a bank of screens in the control room, Along
with this, the role requires managing the contrast balance and
colour of the final broadcast output. Performing this function
occurs via a vision-switching panel in the control room. In
some productions, a director’s role holds this task, and in
others, gives instruction to a vision switcher. A good vision
switcher has a natural intuition for which shots and pace of
cuts suit the nature of the program.

Graphics operator
This role prepares and displays on-screen graphics to go to air,
usually via the use of a graphics-operating software on a
computer. They conduct this role during an in-studio shoot,
with a swift reaction and flexibility to opportunities for the
display of a graphic as required by the action on- camera.

Make-up artist
This crewmember is tasked with applying make-up to those
appearing on screen. The use of make-up isn’t essential to all
productions, though in those which elect to use it, this is to
make the on-screen face appear more aesthetically pleasing -
or whatever the production requires - in some cases applying
materials to evoke more elaborate or grotesque features. A
hair stylist and wardrobe designer may multi-task under this
role, or be separate altogether. Along with the make-up artists,
the hair stylists, costume designers, and dress technicians all
combine their effort into transforming an actor into a
character, or a person into a presenter.

Costume designer

The costume designer selects, designs and is in charge of all

garments and accessories to be worn on-camera, as well as
designing, planning, and organizing the creation of the
garments down to the fabric, colours and sizes. On some
productions, this role is considered an art form, with each
costume piece meticulously procured or created, contributing
to the overall aesthetic and creative tone of a production -
perhaps conveying the inner, emotional mindset and
interpretation of a character. On other productions though, the
role is mostly practical to have the on-air presenters clothed
appropriately.

Production designer

The production designer holds the responsibility of the visual

appearance of a production, evoking a vision in accordance
with the producer or director. They design, plan, organize, and
arrange set design, equipment availability, as well as the on-
screen appearance a production will have.

Gaffer/Lighting director
A gaffer is the primary electrician on-set, tasked with lighting
the stage at the instruction of the cinematographer or tech
manager. The term “gaffer” is often limited to film production
and lighting may even be co-ordinated by the tech manager
where possible. The term “best boy” refers to one of the
gaffer’s electrical assistants. In a smaller television production,
the Gaffer position lighting to ensure the set is well lit.

Dolly grip
A dolly grip places and moves the dolly track (“dolly’s” being a
vehicle which allows for smooth camera movement along the
ground) where required by the camera op or cinematographer,
motioning the dolly along the track during filming.

Key grip
A key grip’s responsibility is the movement of equipment for
camera mountings and support when that equipment is more
complex than a simple tripod. Grips may also be tasked with
maneuvering of tech equipment on a large set.
Runner
Runners are tasked with carrying out the miscellaneous tasks
required for the production, in support of those crew members
requesting it.

Post-production

Editor
On programs which do not go live-to-air, in post-production an
editor will work alongside the director (and possibly the
producer) to edit the footage that has been shot to create the
final product. An editor’s role is largely one of cutting together
and juxtaposing shots and audio to the requirements of the
director/producer. In some productions however, an editor’s
abilities may influence the creative output. An editor may
commence work prior to the completion of the shoot and in
most productions the editing process takes longer than the
shoot. Editing work is commonly carried out on computer-
based video editing software. An editor’s ability is largely
dependent on their proficiency with that software, as well as
their intuitive feel for the editing together of disparate shots to
create the tone and pace instructed by the director/producer.

Music/Composer
This role is required for productions requiring their own
original music - whether for an opening theme, closing credits,
or music to be played throughout the program. The composer
writes and sometimes also performs this music. They may also
conduct or produce a group of musicians to perform the work
they have written. The tone of the composition and theme may
be communicated by the producer, or written based on a
viewing of the cut of an episode.

Opening titles designer/motion graphics designer

The opening titles displayed at the beginning of a program can
set the tone of the program to come. As such, a producer will
communicate to an opening titles designer a brief of what they
may like these titles to convey. The titles designer may be
given a lot of freedom to design and conceive an idea, or be
instructed specifically, tasked with producing in accordance
with this brief. The titles design should often be designed with
the opening titles music in mind. This position may also be
responsible for creating stings and breakers for the program,
as transitions between segments. They may animate a graphic
created by someone else, or produce their own graphic for
animation.

THE TV PRODUCER ESEENTIALS

In television terms, the EP/Showrunner sits at the top of the

hierarchy. In fact in TV, producers have a lot more power and
creative control of a project. There are a number of
responsibilities within a TV Producer's job description. In
many cases, they are the ones that have been with the project
since its inception and jumped through the hoops to get it
made. Typically, a television producer is tasked with concept
development, raising funds, commissioning writers, budgeting,
selecting and guiding talents and crew members and
evaluating the productions overall quality. The tasks of a
producer are both creative and administrative as he/she is
responsible for a variety of operations on a programme
including writing. The responsibilities of a producer includes:

- developing topics and concept and in charge of the

production from script to screen
- Taking overall responsibility for a production of any size,
depth or duration
 - Being in charge of sourcing all the available resources (4
M’s and T) needed for the effective production of the
programme. The 4 M’s and T are Man (crew/talents),
Machine (equipments), Materials (scripts, set materials
etc), Money and of course Time which has to do with
proper scheduling that will accommodate essentials such
research, contacts and production and briefing meeting
(s).
- The producer is also responsible for production,
scheduling and preservation of the programme
- The producer coordinates the research efforts, acts as a
fact checker and receives feedback from viewers or
listeners on their evaluation of the programme.
- securing all rights and permits
- maintaining the budget and approve schedule etc.

TO SUCCEED AS A PRODUCER

•Must be versatile
•Must have a strong analytical skill and must be inquisitive
•Must be an environmental scanner and must be capable of
anticipating trends and predicting their consequences
•A solid background in broadcast journalism is an advantage
•Must have strong interest in research
•Must have a broad knowledge of current affairs and must be
up-to-date with trends and developments locally and
internationally
•Must read voraciously
•Must be ready to work under pressure
•Must be a broadcast hobbyist
•Must be a ‘backpack journalist’
•Must have good communication skills
•Must have good human relations
•Must have a wide network of contacts
•Must be creative, innovative and be prepared to think outside
the box
•Must be disciplined
•Must be a TEAM LEADER

CHECKLIST OF TELEVISION PRODUCTION FROM IDEA TO

SCREEN

• The idea
• Preliminary research
• Discussion of the idea
• Assessment and plan: number of programmes, duration,
target transmission slot
• The idea in terms of money, resources and Time
• Programme proposal and budget estimate. The proposal
should contain the following:
•Title of programme
• Synopsis of Programme
- Objective (s) of the programme
• Rationale of the programme
• Target Audience
• Justification for Target Audience
• Programme duration
• Programme mode or format
• Proposed day and time of broadcast
• Justification for proposed day and time of broadcast
• Technical requirement for the production
• Proposed talent and crew list
• Budget and funding sources.

• Preliminary information to designer

• Book resources: studio, location shooting, OB, recording,
editing, artists
 • Location recce; shooting schedule
• Library film and stills
• Agree design plan
• Music, titles, graphics
• Shoot, edit, mix and dub location material
• Studio floor plan
• Distribute rehearsal script to lighting, technical resources,
sound, costume, make-up
• Technical planning meeting
• Presentation and promotion information
• Checking period for graphics etc.
• Outside rehearsal and technical run
• Camera plans
• Camera script and camera cards
• Studio rehearse and record
• Editing and dubbing
• Transmission
• Assessment

TYPES OF TELEVISION PROGRAMMES

i. News/features and documentary programmes

ii. Musical programmes
iii. Drama programmes
iv. Educational programmes
v. Childrens programmes
vi. Sports
vii. Religious programmes
viii. Talk/Spoken word programmes

SCRIPTING A TELEVISION PRODUCTION

There are different script formats in broadcasting particularly

for television production. The most common are the:
•Single Column Drama Script: used for writing plays

•Two Column A/V (Audio/Visual) Script: used for most

television programmes. The right column contains the audio
information and the left column contains the video information
or cues. This script format can also be partially scripted or fully
scripted

•News Script: the most widely used script format

•Show format: Which is a guide to routine show segments. Eg

Running Order/Run Down Sheet

•Interview Guide: for the host(s) and it contains questions to

pose to guest.

•Fact Sheet- lists of items to be mentioned and shown on air.

We shall for the purpose of this course, examine one script

format that producers use for different programme typologies
except documentary, news or drama production and that is
the RUNNING ORDER or RUN DOWN SCRIPT (RDS)

•Running Order or Run Down Script (RDS) is a vital

requirement for television productions. There are different
styles to presenting the running order. But the most commonly
used is the 6 column RDS which indicates the activities to be
undertaken, the timing, studio requirement, the personnel as
well as other production need. The RDS serves as a guide to the
producer and all those involved in the production process
including the talent and the crew. Here are a few examples
S/NO ACTIVITY TIME AUDIO/VISUAL COMMENT
DURATION CUES

1 OPENING MONTAGE 10am 1 min Playback VTR to cue

Track: 1 extended
version
2. Opening/Presentation 10.01 3 mins Live MO & FE
ANCHORS: MO & FE am to open
the show
standing

3 Newspaper Review 10.03 5 mins Live VTR to cue

HOSTS and guest (Dr. and launch
ismail ibraheem segment
montage
before and
after
4 Main Issue Etc Etc Etc etc
Host and Guest

REFERENCE:

• Bakare, S (2005) Basics of Broadcasting. A

Manual on Radio and Television Techniques in
Nigeria. Lagos: A Palm Communication Company
• Billings, W (2017) Television Production
Personnel Roles and Responsibilities. Retrieved
from
 http://syn.org.au/app/uploads/pdf/SYN%20Gui
de%20to%20TV%20Roles%20and%20Responsibi
lities_0.pdf

• Schultz Brad (2004) Broadcast News Producing.

Oklahoma: Oklahoma Associated Press

• Sarah Rowland and Gary Hudson (2007)

Broadcast Journalism Handbook. New York:
Pearson Longman

• Onabajo, Olufemi. (2002). Station Management

and Operations. Lagos: Gabi Concept Ltd.