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Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonding occurs between a metal and non-metal atoms. The metal transfer or donates
electrons to the non-metal so they can have full outer shells.

Eg- Sodium has an electronic configuration of 2,8,1.

Chlorine has an electronic configuration of 2,8,7.

Sodium can either gain 7 electrons or lose 1 electron to have a full outer shell. It requires less
energy to lose 1 electron so the sodium will transfer this one electron when bonding.
Chlorine can either lose 7 electrons or gain 1 electron to have a full outer shell. It requires less
energy to gain 1 electron than to lose 7 electrons, so the chlorine will usually accept 1 electron
when bonding.
Refer to bonding diagrams from class
After the transfer of electron from the sodium to chlorine they both become ions as follows:
Na+ E.C. – 2,8 and Cl- E.C. – 2,8,8.

Because their outer shells are full, they are stable. The electrostatic forces of attraction
between the positive and negative ions attract each other and stick together forming the
compound sodium chloride. These strong electrostatic forces of attraction are the ionic bonds.
The crystal lattice of an ionic crystal is in a regular three dimensional arrangement. These ionic
bonds act in all directions due to the three dimensional lattice.

N.B. The nucleus does not take part in bonding.

Cations are positive ions. All metals form cations.
Anions are negative ions.
Metals usually have 1,2 or 3 valence electrons.
Non-metals have 4 or more valence electrons.
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Properties of Ionic Substances

• They have high melting points and boiling points due to strong ionic bonds
• They usually form crystalline solids.
• They conduct electricity only when dissolved or molten (liquid form). This is because in
this form, there are mobile ions to transport electricity. In the solid form all ions are
bonded together.
• They are soluble in water but not organic solvents.
Structure of Sodium Chloride
In a crystal of sodium chloride, each sodium ion is surrounded by 6 chlorine ions, and each
chlorine ion is surrounded by 6 sodium ions. This forms a repeating cubical structure.

In a cube you can draw a sodium chloride model by following the following:
1 sodium ion at each vertex – 8
1 chloride ion in the centre of each edge - 12
1 sodium ion in the centre of each face - 6
1 chloride ion in the centre of the entire cube – 1
Always use a Key to distinguish between the sodium and the chloride ions.

Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonding occurs when non-metal atoms share electrons by the overlapping of orbitals
to become stable. Atoms may be of the same type or different atoms.

In covalent bonding each atom has to donate the same number of atoms to the bond.

Chlorine has an electronic configuration of 2,8,7. It needs one more electron to become stable.
If it undergoes covalent bonding with another Chlorine atom, it can overlap and each can share
1 electron to become stable.
Refer to bonding diagrams from class
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When each atom donates 1 electron to the bond it is called a single bond.
When each atom donates 2 electrons to the bond it is called a double bond.
When each atom shares 3 electrons to the bond it is called a triple bond.
Cl2 has a single bond and can be represented as Cl-Cl
O2 has a double bond and can be represented as O=O
N2 has a triple bond and can be represented as N≡N

Common Ions and Their Charges

Table showing common cations

1+ 2+ 3+
Ammonium NH4 + Barium Ba2+ Aluminum Al3+
Hydrogen H+ Calcium Ca2+ Chromium (III) Cr3+
Lithium Li+ Magnesium Mg2+ Cobalt Co3+
Sodium Na+ Iron (II) Fe2+ Iron (III) Fe3+
Potassium K+ Lead Pb2+
Copper (I) Cu+ Copper (II) Cu2+
Silver Ag+ Nickel (II) Ni2+
Gold Au+ Zinc Zn2+
Tin (II) Sn2+

For elements that form ions with more than one charge, roman numerals are used. So iron (II)
has a 2+ charge where iron (III) has a 3+ charge.
What charge would you expect Lead (IV) to have?
Table showing common anions

1- 2- 3-
Chloride Cl- Oxide O2- Nitride N3-
Fluoride F- Sulfide S2- Phosphide P3-
Iodide I- Carbonate CO32- Phosphate PO43-
Hydroxide OH- Sulphate SO42-
Nitrite NO2- Sulphite SO32-
Nitrate NO3-
Hydrogen carbonate HCO3-
Permanganate MnO4-
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Valency:
Valency is the number of electrons that an atom has which can take place in bonding. It is the
number of electrons an atom can donate, receive or share.
In the tables above,

• everything with either a 1+ charge or 1- charge has a valency of 1.

• Everything with either a 2+ charge or 2- charge has a valency of 2.
• Everything with either a 3+ charge or 3- charge has a valency of 3.

Writing and Naming Chemical Formulae

When atoms bond to become stable, they form various new substances. These substances have
names and chemical formulae.
Ionic compounds:
In naming ionic compounds, the metal or positive atom (cation) comes first, followed by the
negative ion (anion).
Most atoms that form anions change their name. Some common ones are:

• Oxygen forms oxides

• Chlorine forms chlorides
• Nitrogen forms nitrides
• Fluorine forms fluorides
When chlorine bonds to sodium, the compound formed is sodium chloride. The first word is the
metal, the 2nd word is the non-metal ion.
Another example, when magnesium bonds to oxygen, the compound form is called magnesium
oxide. The first word is the metal, the 2nd word is the non-metal ion.
What would be the name of the compound formed when aluminum bonds to fluorine?
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Covalent molecules:
In naming covalent molecules, some have non-conventional names such as water and
ammonia.
Rules for naming simple covalent compounds:
1. Name the non-metal furthest to the left on the periodic table by its elemental name.
2. Name the other non-metal by its elemental name and an -ide ending.
3. Use the prefixes mono-, di-, tri-, tetra- to indicate the number of that element in the
molecule.
4. If mono is the first prefix, it is understood and not written.
Examples:
CO2 – Carbon dioxide. (Because there are 2 oxygen atoms, so it becomes dioxide)
CO – Carbon monoxide (Because there is 1 oxygen atom, so the prefix mono is used)
CCl4 – Carbon tetrachloride
Writing Chemical Formula
Balancing charges (For ionic compounds only)
All compounds for our level have no charge, they are neutral. That means the sum of the
positive charges should be equal to the sum of the negative charges. Eg. For sodium chloride,
Na+ and Cl- form NaCl. For magnesium chloride, Mg2+ and Cl- have different charges. Two
chloride ions will be required to make the compound neutral forming MgCl2.
For both ionic compounds and Covalent molecules:
Valency:
Valency can also be used to work out formula for both ionic and covalent substances. In
this method the valency of the element is exchanged with the number of atoms of the other
element as shown below. It is then reduced to the smallest terms.

The valency of sodium is 1, the valency of chlorine is 1. Therefore

1 1
Na Cl NaCl
The valency of Magnesium is 2, valency of oxygen is 2
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2 2
Mg O Mg2O2. Because both numbers can be reduced, it is written as MgO.

2 1
Mg NO3 Mg(NO3)2.
For complex ions, if there are more than one, they are written in brackets and the number
placed at the bottom right hand corner.

3 1
N H NH3

Intermolecular Bonding
Covalent bonds are intra-molecular bonds because they are bonds that hold atoms
together within a molecule and are very strong. Intermolecular bonds are the bonds between
molecules in a structure. E.g. the bonds between multiple carbon dioxide molecules in the air.
In covalent bonding when there are slight imbalances small temporary charges are
formed on each called dipoles. In water the oxygen atom pulls the shared electron pairs closer
to itself causing the oxygen molecule to be more negative and the hydrogen ion to be more
positive. This causes the molecule to not be totally neutral but with small charges. These types
of molecules are said to be polar.
Hydrogen bonding-
In molecules containing hydrogen, this type of inter-molecular bonding is referred to as
hydrogen bonding.
Van-Der-Waals Forces-
In molecules containing atoms of the same element, slight charges occur. At any instant
more electrons may be on any one atom causing temporary dipoles. This dipole leads to
intermolecular forces called Van Der Waals Forces.

As the molecule size gets larger, the strength of the intermolecular forces increases. Therefore,
as you go down group VII, the elements turn from gas, to liquid then to solid.
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Properties of Simple Covalent molecules

• Low melting points due to weak intermolecular forces which break easily
• Poor conductors of heat and electricity because there are no free(mobile) electrons or
ions.
• Usually soluble in organic solvents but not water.
Giant Molecular Structures
Some covalent substances form giant repeating structures which have high melting and boiling
points. Some examples of substances that show giant molecular structures are silicon dioxide
and carbon.

Allotropes
Allotropes are elements that have more than one structure in the same state of matter.
Allotropes usually have different physical properties from each other but the same chemical
properties.
Carbon has two allotropes:

• Diamond
• Graphite

Diamond
In diamond each carbon atom is covalently bonded to 4 other carbon atoms forming a 3-
dimensional lattice.
Properties of Diamond:

• Transparent and sparkling

• High melting point because of strong covalent bonds
• Hardest natural substance on the earth due to the strength of its bond.
• Poor conductor of electricity because it has no free electrons to carry a charge.

Graphite
In graphite each carbon is covalently bonded to 3 other carbon atoms forming a flat hexagonal
layer of carbon atoms. The extra electron from each carbon atom can move throughout the
layers allowing graphite to conduct electricity. The hexagonal layers of graphite are held
together by weak Van-der-Waals forces allowing layers to slide and flake off.
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Properties of Graphite:

• Black, opaque and shiny.

• Has a high melting point because of strong covalent bonds
• Soft, flaky and brittle because of the weak Van-Der-Waal forces holding layers together.
• Good lubricant because of the weak Van-Der-Waal forces break easily allowing layers to
slide over each other.
• Good conductor of electricity because of the mobile electron from each carbon atom.

Metallic Bonding
Metallic bonding occurs between metal atoms when the metal atoms lose their valence
electrons in order to form a stable (full) outer shell. These electrons are lost so that metal
cations are formed. The electrons each atom form a “sea of electrons”. The attraction between
the positive metal cations and these negative electrons cause a strong attraction holding the
metal together. The electrons in the sea of electrons are free to move along the structure
allowing metals to be good conductors of heat and electricity.

If a metal atom has 1 valence electron, each atom will donate 1 electron to the sea of electrons.
If a metal atom has 2 valence electrons, each atom will donate 2 electrons to the sea of
electrons.
If a metal atom has 3 valence electrons, each atom will donate 3 electrons to the sea of
electrons.

Refer to bonding diagrams from class

Properties of Metals:

• Good conductors of heat and electricity.

• High melting points.
• Malleable (can be hammered)
• Ductile (can be drawn into wire)
• Usually solid at room temperature.