ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING

INTRODUCTION TO DATA MANAGEMENT

Introduction: Keeping record of information in an easily accessible form is usually a big

problem for organizations especially when the records are of high volume.

Data/record keeping when done manually is often time-consuming, prone to errors, difficult to
add or append new records (or data items) to existing files. As a result, organizations now use the
computer system to store data, making it easy to be retrieved, manipulated and reserved more
quickly.

DATA MODEL:

Definition 1: Data model is the pattern of structuring and organizing a system’s data to enable
the implementation of the patterns or structures in a Database Management System (DBMS

Definition 2: A data model is an abstract model that organizes elements of data and standardizes
how they relate to one another and to properties of the real world entities.

Definition 3: A data model refers to the logical inter-relationships and data flow between
different data element involved in the information world. It also documents the way data s stored
and retrieved. Data model keep representing what data is required and what format is to be used
for different business processes.

COMPONENTS OF DATA MODEL:

 Data types
 Data items
 Data sources
 Event sources
 Link

STYLES OF DATA MODEL/APPROACHES IN DATA MODELLING

The three basic styles /approaches of data models are:

1
a) Conceptual data models (conceptual schema)

b) Logical data models

c) Physical data models

(a) Conceptual data models: This is also known as conceptual schema. It identifies the highest
level of relationships between different entities. It is useful due to its simplicity. It is often used
for communicating ideas and in strategic data projects. It is mostly developed for a business
audience.

(b) Logical data models: Is the process of representing data architecture and organization in a
graphical way without any regard to the physical implementation or the database management
system. Logical data model represents the following information. Entities, Attributes, Key
groups(prims and foreign keys), Relationships, Normalization etc

(c) Physical data models: This represents the physical means used to store data. Mainly the
CPU, drives, partitions, table spaces etc.

TYPES OF DATA MODEL

A) Flat model/table model: This is made up of a two dimensional array of data items/elements
where all members of a given column are assumed to be similar values and all members of a row
are assumed to be related to each other. Example: a simple table of value

Column Name Phone No Age Address

John 08034…… 12 -------
Mathew --------- -- ------

B) Hierarchical model: This is set up based on a hierarchical structure. It is a tree like structure.
Link pointers are established to enable very fast searches and processing of data items based on
these natural occurring structure. It has one to many relationships.

Example. An organizational database or a teacher to student relationship

2
 Principal

VP Admin Dean of Student Bursar VP Acad.

C) Network mode: This model organizes data using two fundamental constructs, called records
and sets. Records contained fields and sets define one to many relationships between records. Eg.
One owner, many members, one parent having many children.

Parent

Child1 Child2 Child3

Computer English Maths

St.1 St.2 St.3 Network Model

D) RELATIONAL MODEL: This model focus on the logical representation of data and it’s
relationship. It is not concerned in the physical storage details of data. It begins with the
definition of required entities. Records are connected using logic and by using that data was
redundantly stored in each table.

3
 Activity Code Activity Name
23 Raking
24 Overlay
25 Crack sealing

Activity Code Date Route No

24 01/12 1 - 95
24 02/08 1 – 66

Date Activity Code Route No

01/12 24 1 – 95
02/08 24 1 – 95

E) OBJECT- RELATIONAL MODEL: This model is similar to the relational model except that
it uses objects, classes and inheritance to represent the actual data. The model is used when there
is complex data or complex data relationship. It reduces the number of paging and is easy to
navigate. Also less codes are required.

An object relational database can be said to provide a middle ground between relational
databased and object-oriented database(OODBASE)

DATA MODELLING CONTINUED

CREATING TABLES AND FORMS

A table is a database object used to store data about a particular entity in a two dimensional
format. It consists of row and columns which represents records and fields respectively.

4
A record files a complete information about an instance or entity. Afield contains related data
items about one aspect of the table subject.

Creating a table can be done in one of 3 ways.

1) Using the design view.

2) Using database wizard.

3) Directly entering data into the table.

STEPS IN USING THE DESIGN VIEW

Step1: Run a Ms Access program.

Step2: Click on the create tab.

Step3: Click on the table design button.

Step4: Click on the design view ( a design view window appears).

Step5: Click on the field name cell and type the field name.

Step6: Click on the data type cell, a list of data types appears, select and Click on the data type.

Step7: Click on the description cell and then type a description. Also select an option if
recessing when the property update option appears.

Step8: Save your defined table. This is done by Clicking on the save button after typing on a
table and Click on the button.

Step9: Click on theclose button on the table window when you are done.

5
 OR

Step1: Open a blank database by default table 1,

Step2: Right click on table 1 and a drop down menu appears.

Step3: Click on design view.

Step4: Type in the table name.

Step5: Click on Ok button to save the table.

Step6: Enter field name and data types as appropriate.

Step7: Save the table.

TO ADD A NEW FIELD TO EXISTING DATABASE

Step1: Click the add new field column table.

Step2: Activate the database type tab.

Step3: Click on rename in the fields and column group.

Step4: Type in the field name

Step5: Press enter to create it.

Step6: Repeat step5 as many times as the number of new field you want.

Step7: Press enter key without entering a field name to end your entities.

TO ADD NEW FIELD TO DESIGN VIEW.

Step1: Click on the design view button.

Step2: Click on the next available field.

Step3: Type in the field name.

Step4: save.

6
TO EDIT DATA TYPS IN DATABASE VIEW

Step1: Click on the field you want to edit

Step2: Click on datasheet table on the ribbon.

Step3: Click on the down arrow next to data type.

Step4: Close as appropriate the new data type.

Step5: Save.

TO EDIT DATA FORMAT

Data format is how data appear when viewed or printed.

Step1: Click on the field you wish to redefine.

Step2: Click on the database on the ribbon.

Step3: Click on the down arrow next to format.

Step4: Select appropriate format.

Step5: Save changes.

TO EDIT DATA TYPE IN THE DESIGN VIEW

Step1: Click on design view.

Step2: Click on the field name you wish to redefine.

Step3: Click on the data type.

Step4: Choose appropriate data type.

Step5: Format the field in the field appropriates dialog box.

Step6: Save changes.

7
TO RENAME A TABLE

Step1: Open the database.

Step2: Right click on the table you to rename and choose rename from the drop down menu.

Step3: Type the new name and press enter key.

TO DELETE A TABBLE

Step1: Open the database

Step2: Right click on the table to delete and choose delete on the drop down menu.

Step3: Click on yes if the system prompts to confirm the delete operation.

FORMS

Definition: Forms are database objects used to enter, edit or display data. They allow uses
control the look of the screen when data is imputed and reports generated. They are based on
tables.

When using a form, you can choose the format, the arrangement and which fields you want to
display.

STEPS IN CREATING A FORM

Step1: Open the navigation panel.

Step2: Click on the table (or query) you want to base your form.

Step3: Activate the create tab.

Step4: Click form in the forms group.

Step5: Save your created form.

8
CREATING A FORM USING A FORM WIZARD

Step1: Click on more forms down arrows.

Step2: Click on forms wizard.

Step3: Choose the tables/queries you wish to have on the form.

Step4: Choose the fields you wish to have on the form.

Step5: Click on next

Step6: Choose the layout for the form.

Step7: Click on next.

Step8: Choose a form style.

Step9: Click on next.

Step10: Create a title for the form.

Step11: Choose whether to open the form for viewing or modifying the form design.

Step12: Click on finish.

CREATING QUERIES

A query is a database object used to select and filter data from multiple tables.

STEPS TO CREATE A QUERY

Step1: Click on the create tab.

Step2: Click on the query wizard button from other group.

Step3: Choose a query type.

Step4: Click ok.

9
SELECTING FIELDS TO INCLUDE IN YOUR QUERY FROM A DIFFERENT TABLE:

Step1: Click on the table/queries down arrow

Step2: Click on next.

Step3: Type in the query file.

Step4: Click finish and wait for your query to display.

REPORTS

Reports are database object used to organize or summarize data for printing or viewing online.
They are also used to display and analyze data of large amounts.

STEPS INVOLVED IN USING BLANK REPORT TO CREATE REPORT.

Step1: Click on the create tab.

Step2: Click on blank report.

Step3: Click on add existing field button

Step4: From the fields list, Click and drag the needed fields into the report

USING THE REPORT WIZARD

Step1: Click on the create tab.

Step2: Click on the report wizard button.

Step3: Choose the table/queries that you wish to have in the form.

Step4: Choose the field of choice.

Step5: Click on next.

10
Step6: Choose the style/order for your file.

Step7: Click on next.

Step8: Choose a name/title for the report.

Step9: Choose whether you want to open the report for viewing or modify it.

Step10: Click on finish.

DATA TYPES

Definition: Data type is the term used to specify the kind of data that a field stores and it is
usually set in the table design grid.

(1) TEXT: This is an alphanumeric data. It is a data type used to store text characters and
numbers that do not require calculations. Such as phone numbers, part numbers, postal codes,
addresses, etc. It can store up to 255 characters. The field size property controls the maximum
number of characters that can be entered.

(2) DATE/TIME: This is data type used for date and time. It stores 8 bytes.

(3) CURRENCY: This is a data type used to store currency value and to represent rounding off
during calculations. It stores 8 bytes.

(4) HYPERLINKS: This is a data type used to store hyperlinks (website locations and
addresses) A hyperlink can be a UNC part or a URL. It stores up to 64,000 characters.

SIGNIFICANCE/IMPORTANCE OF DATA MODELS

- Data model helps developers to understand the domain and organize their work accordingly.

- Data model provides a focus for determining scope.

- Data model promotes agreement on vocabulary and jargon.

- For faster performance, a well - constructed database typically runs faster, often quicker than
expected.

11
- It facilitates interaction and communication between the designers, programmers and end users.

- It helps in structuring and organizing data.

STANDARD DATA MODELS (SDMS)

SDMS are data models that are widely applied in industries and shared among competitors to an
extent. They are set defined by standard bodies or database vendors.

They encourage information sharing among organizations and are treated as examples of
database models.

They include:

1. ISO 15926: In charge of computer interpretable representation and exchange of product

manufacturing information.

2. ISO15926: Is a standard for data integration, sharing, exchange and hand over between
computers.

3. IDEAS GROUP: International defence Enterprise architecture Specification for exchange

group.

NORMAL FORMS (NF)

NORMALIZATION

- Normalization is a database design technique which organizes tables in a manner that reduces
redundancy and dependency of data. It divides larger tables to smaller tables and links them
using relationships.

technique which organises tables in a manner that reduces redundancy and dependency of data. It
divides larger table to smaller tables and links them using relationship.

Normalization is a systematic approach of decomposing tables to eliminate data redundancy

(repetition) and undesirable characteristics like insertion, update and deletion anomalies.

12
REASONS/PURPOSE OF NORMALIZATION

- To eliminate redundant (useless) data.

- To ensure data dependency make sense ( is data is logically stared).

- To avoid unnecessary coding/to facilitate the enforcement of data constraint.

NORMAL FORMS:. Normal form theory deals with how to reduce the amount of redundancy of
data within a given table.

SIGNIFICANCE/IMPORTANCE/USES

- It allows for update, insertion and deletion operations to be performed on DLS table.

- It helps to eliminate data redundancy.

- It helps to define data dependency correctly.

TYPES OF NORMAL FORMS

1) First normal form

2) Second normal form

3) Third normal form

4) Boyce - codd normal form

5) Fourth normal form

6) Fifth normal form

7) Sixth normal form

FIRST NORMAL FORM(INF): This eliminates data duplication by eliminating redundant data
and the idea of having separate tables for data that are related .

RULE:

A table is in INF if:

13
a) It should only have single (atomic) value attributes/columns.

b) Values stored in a column should be the same domain.

c) All the columns in a table should have unique names.

d) The order in which data is stored does not matter.

A SECOND NORMAL FORM (2NF): This is a normal form that eliminates data duplication by
removing subsets of data that apply to multiple rows of a table and then places them in separate
tables.

RULE:

For a table to be in 2NF;

a) It should be in the 1st normal form

b) It should not have partial dependency.

THIRD NORMAL FORM (3NF): This normal form meets the condition of the 1NF and 2NF
and in addition must remove the columns that does not fully depend on the primary key.

RULE:

For a table to be in 3NF

* It is in the 2NF.

* It does not have transitive dependency.

BOYCE AND CODD NORMAL FORM: This is a higher version of the 3NF. This form deals
with certain type of anomaly that is not handled by 3NF.

RULE:

For a table to be in BCNF.

* R must be in 3rd normal form.

14
* For each functional dependency (x = y) X should be a super key.

FOURTH NORMAL FORM (4NF);

RULE:

A table is said to be in 4NF when

- It is in the BCNF.

- It does not have multi-valued dependency.

FIFTH NORMAL FORM (5NF)

RULE:

A table is in 5NF only if it is in 4NF

* It cannot be decomposed into any number of smaller tables without loss of data.

DETERMINATION OF NORMAL FORM

Normalization is a technique for producing a set of suitable relations that support the data
requirements of an enterprise.

Characteristics of a suitable set of relations include:

1) The minimal number of attributes necessary to support the data requirements of the enterprise.

2) Attributes with a close logical relationship are found in the same relationship.

3) Minimal redundancy with each attribute represented only once with the important exception
of attributes that form all or part of foreign keys.

CONCEPT OF FOREIGN KEYS (FK)

Foreign key is a field in a relational table that matches a candidate key of another table.

A foreign key is a column or combination of columns that is used to establish and enforce a link
between the data in two tables.

15
Foreign key references the primary key of another table. It helps connect your tables.

- A foreign key can have a different name from it's primary key.

- It ensures row in one table have corresponding rows in another.

- Unlike the primary key, they do not have to be unique.

- Foreign keys can be null even though primary keys cannot.

For example: In a student table in db, student has a link to a student cause table because these is
a logical relationship between student and cause. The student ID column in the student cause
table matches the primary key column of the student table. The student ID column is the primary
key in student table and is the foreign key to the student cause table.

TABLE DIAGRAM(CLASS WORK)

PRIMARY KEY: Is a field in a table which uniquely identifies each row/column in a database
table. Primary key must contain unique values.

COMPOSITE KEY: Are multiple fields used as a primary key.

A primary key is a nominated column or combination of columns that has a different value for
every row in a table.

- Candidate key are more than one column or combination of columns that serve as primary
keys.

ENTITY - RELATIONSHIP MODEL

DEFINITION: Entity - relationship is a graphical representation of entities and their relationship

to each other, usually expressed using entity - relationship diagram (ERD).

ENTITY RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAM.

This is s diagram used to show or illustrate the logical structures of database. It is also used to
show data that must be collected, stored and retrieved to promote business activities.

16
USES OF ERD.

- It is used to identify data that must be captured, stored and retrieved in order to support the
business activities performed by an organization.

- It is used to identify the data required to derive and report on the performance, measures that an
organization should be monitoring.

- It is used to show the logical structure of db.

COMPONENTS OF ENTITIES-RELATIONSHIP

There are three components of ER

(1) Entities

(2) Attributes

(3) Relationship

ENTITY: An entity is a single distinguishable business object such as a person, place, thing,
event or concept, part of a group of similar objects , relevant to an organization about which the
organization is interested in storing and using information. They are objects or concepts within
the data model. Each entity is represented by a box within the ERD.

ATTRIBUTE: An attribute is a unique distinguishing property/characteristic of an entity. An

attribute is sometimes called data element.

RELATIONSHIP: A relationship is an association between two different entities. A relationship

is an association among the instances of one or more entity types that is of interest to the
organization E.g. Employees work in a department. Truck is a type of Vehicle.

CARDINALITY

17
Cardinality is fundamental principle that defines the relationship between the entities in terms of
members.

 TYPES OF CARDINALITY RELATIONSHIP

There are three potential types of relationship which can exist between two different entities.

a) One – to- one relationship.

b) One – to – many relationship.

c) Many – to – many relationship.

ONE – TO- ONE RELATIONSHIP (1.1)

This type of relationship exists when a single occurrence of an entity is related to just one
occurrence of a second entity. E.g. Patient to a Doctor.

ONE – TO – MANY RELATIONSHIP (1:M)

This type of relationship exists when a single occurrence of an entity is related to many
occurrences of a second entity. E.g A teacher to many students, Pastor to members.

MANY – TO – MANY RELATIONSHIP.

This type of relationship exists when many occurrences of an entity are related to many
occurrences of a second entity. E.g Doctor and Patience.

RELATIONAL MODELS

Definition: Relational model is a collection of tables to represent both data and the relationships
among those data.

RDBMS Stands for Relational Database Management System. It is the basis for SQL. It is a
DBMS that is based on the relational model as introduced by Prof E.F. Codd in 1970.

18
FEATURES OF RELATIONAL MODEL

1) Each row in the table is called Tuple.

2) Each column in the table is called Attribute

3) The intersection of row with the column will have data value.

4) In relational model, rows can be in any order.

5) In relational model, attributes can be in any order.

6) By definition, all rows in a relation are distinct. No two rows can be exactly.

7) Relations must have a key. Keys can be a set of attributes.

8) For each column of a table there is a set of possible values called it’s domain. The domain
contains all possible values that can appear under that column.

TERMS IN RELATIONAL DATABASE

a) Table: This is a collection of related data entities and it consists of columns and rows.

b) Field: Is a column in a table that is designed to maintain specific information about every
record in the table.

c) Record/Row: Record, also called row of data is each individual entry that exists in a table.

d) Column: Is a vertical entity in a table that contains all information associated with a specific
field in a able.

d) Null Value: A null value in a table is a value in a field that appears to be blank. Which means
a field with a null value in a field with no value.

CONSTRAINT

Constraint are rules enforce on data columns in tables of database. They are normally used to
limit the type of data that a table may contain to enhance accuracy and reliability of the data
entered into the table.

19
TYPES OF CONSTRAINT

a) Table level constraint.

b) Column level constraint

- Table level constraint is applied to the entire table.

- Column level constraint is applied only in one column.

Constraint can be created before or after a table has been created.

20