11 Force and motion
11.1 Motion (Book 2B, p. 168–181)
1 Distance, time and speed are used to describe the motion of an object. The higher the speed,
the faster the object is moving.
2 Units of distance, time and speed:
Quantity Unit
Distance metre (m)
Time second (s)
Speed metre per second (m/s or m s−1)
3 Average speed describes how fast an object is moving over the whole journey.
distance
Average speed =
time
4 A distance-time graph records the distance that an object has travelled at different
moments in time.
5 In a distance-time graph:
• A horizontal line means the object is at rest.
• A slanted straight line means the object is moving at a constant speed.
• A steeper line represents a higher average speed.
6 An object is in uniform motion when it moves at a constant speed in one direction. Its
distance–time graph is a straight line.
7 An object is in non-uniform motion when its speed and / or direction change(s).
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11 Force and motion
11.2 Effects of forces and ways to describe forces
(Book 2B, p. 182–188)
1 Effects of forces:
• Changing the speed of an object, e.g. causing it to move from rest, speeding it up,
slowing it down or stopping it.
• Changing the direction of motion of an object.
2 The size of a force can be measured by a spring balance or a force sensor. Its unit is the
newton (N).
3 A force is represented by a straight arrow in a diagram.
• The direction of the arrow indicates the direction of the force.
• The length of the arrow indicates the size of the force.
4 Steps in drawing an arrow to represent a force: hitting force
Draw a straight arrow with its tail at the point
where the force is applied on the object.
The arrow should point in the same direction as
the force it represents.
Write down the name of the force next to
the arrow.
11.3 Balanced forces and free-body diagrams
(Book 2B, p. 189–198)
1 If an object applies a force on another object through direct contact only, this force is a
contact force.
2 If an object can apply a force on another object when they are not in direct contact, this
force is a non-contact force.
3 If all the forces acting on an object are balanced (i.e. net force acting on the object is zero),
the object will stay at rest or move in uniform motion.
4 If the forces acting on an object are unbalanced (i.e. net force is not zero), the object will
move in non-uniform motion.
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11 Force and motion
5 A free-body diagram of an object can help determine if the forces acting on the object are
balanced. It includes all the forces acting on the object only, but not those exerted by
the object.
6 Steps in drawing a free-body diagram of an object:
Identify the target object in the photo. Isolate it from its
surroundings.
Draw a single object, i.e. the target object, only. No need to
sketch its details. Just draw the rough outline of its shape.
Find out all the forces acting on the object. Note their sizes
and directions, and their points of action on the object.
Draw arrows to represent the forces and label each of them.
Note that the arrows must come in contact with the object.
supporting force by the chair
11.4 Gravity (Book 2B, p. 199–206)
force of gravity
1 The force of gravity is an attractive force between two bodies.
It is a non-contact force.
2 The force of gravity exerted by the Earth on an object always pulls the object towards the
Earth’s centre.
3 When an object falls under gravity and there are no other forces acting on it, its motion is
called free fall. Free fall is a non-uniform motion.
4 The mass of an object shows the amount of matter in the object. Its unit is the
kilogram (kg) or gram (g).
5 The weight of an object on the Earth is the force of gravity acting on the object by the
Earth. Its unit is the newton (N).
6 The force of gravity experienced by an object increases with its mass.
7 The weight of an object may vary from place to place in space but its mass remains
unchanged.
E 8 On Earth, the value of an object’s weight (in N) is about 10 times the value of its
mass (in kg).
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11 Force and motion
11.5 Friction and air resistance (Book 2B, p. 207–224)
1 Friction arises between two surfaces when two objects in contact slide over each other. It is
a contact force.
2 Friction opposes the sliding motion. Its direction is always opposite to the moving direction
of the object.
3 Friction can be measured by pulling an object on a surface using a spring balance. The
pulling force is the same size as the friction acting on the object by the surface just before
the object starts to move.
4 Other effects of friction:
• Friction can produce a heating effect.
• Friction can cause wear.
5 When an object moves through air, an opposing force called air resistance acts on it. Air
resistance is a contact force.
6 Air resistance increases with the speed of the moving object.
7 For an object sliding on a surface, friction can be reduced by:
• separating the object from the surface with lubricant;
• separating the object from the surface with an air cushion;
• using ball bearings or rollers to change the sliding motion to a rolling motion.
8 For an object moving in air, air resistance can be reduced by:
• streamlining the shape of the object;
• reducing air density.
9 Although friction and air resistance can cause problems, they are useful in daily life to:
• prevent slipping;
• slow down motion;
• make rolling easier.
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11 Force and motion
11.6 Action and reaction (Book 2B, p. 225–231)
1 Forces always occur in pairs called action and reaction, or action-and-reaction pairs.
2 Action and reaction:
• act on different objects that interact with each other;
• are in opposite directions;
• are equal in size.
3 Steps in drawing action and reaction:
Identify the interaction. Action and reaction force exerted on the ball by the player
must act on two objects, say A and B. ball
Draw arrows to represent the action and
reaction. The arrows should have the same
length and point in opposite directions. player
Name the forces in the following form:
force exerted on A by B
force exerted on B by A force exerted on the player by the ball
4 Examples of action-and-reaction pairs:
• When a swimmer does a turn, he force exerted force exerted on
exerts a force on the swimming on the wall by the swimmer by
the swimmer the wall
pool wall, and the wall exerts a
force of equal size on him in the
opposite direction. This force
pushes him away from the wall.
• For an object on Earth, the Earth
exerts a force (force of gravity) on the
object, and the object also exerts a
force of equal size on the Earth in the
opposite direction. force exerted
on the boy by
the Earth
force exerted
on the Earth
by the boy
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11 Force and motion
E
11.7 Space flight (Book 2B, p. 232–239)
1 Rockets have to escape from gravity when launched to space.
2 For an object to lift off from the Earth and escape to outer space, it must overcome gravity.
The driving force acting on it must be:
• in opposite direction to the force of gravity (i.e. object’s weight);
• large enough to overcome the force of gravity.
3 When a rocket is launched, it pushes hot gases downwards and the reaction pushes it
upwards.
4 Rockets have a streamlined shape to reduce air resistance.
5 Spacecraft and satellites are moving in frictionless motion in space. There is no air and
hence no air resistance in space.
6 Astronauts and objects in space are in micro-gravity motion.
7 A spacecraft has a heat shield at its base to prevent the cabin from overheating when it
returns to the Earth from space.
8 The parachute slows down the spacecraft by increasing the air resistance.
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