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In a more formal definition, tangents are dependent on

the concept of secants. A secant line is a line that
COURSE OUTCOME 4
intersects a curve at two or more distinct points. If we
take a secant line passing through two points on the
I.​ EQUATIONS OF TANGENT AND NORMAL LINES
curve, for example, (𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)) and (𝑥 + ℎ, 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ)), the
II.​ POLYNOMIAL CURVE TRACING
difference quotient gives its slope:
III.​ OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS
IV.​ TIME RATES
𝑓(𝑥−ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 = ℎ

LESSON 1.1: EQUATION OF TANGENT LINES

As the second point moves closer to the first point (i.e.,
as ℎ→0), the secant line approaches a single point of
intersection with the curve. In the limiting case, the
DEFINITION OF TANGENT LINES
secant line becomes the tangent line, and its slope is
A tangent line can be interpreted in different ways… given by the derivative:

a.​ a line that touches a graph at EXACTLY one 𝑓(𝑥−ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)

point
𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 = lim ℎ
= 𝑓'(𝑥)
ℎ→0
b.​ a line that touches a circle at EXACTLY one
point
c.​ a trigonometric function (tangent, cotangent); Thus, a tangent line can be thought of as the limit of
d.​ derived from the Latin word tángere, which secant lines as the second point approaches the first.
means ‘to touch’
e.​ in the dictionary definition, tangent means
FINDING TANGENT LINE EQUATIONS
“touching but not intersecting”
f.​ the limiting position of a secant Here are the steps to find the equation of a tangent line
to a curve at a given point:
…although these definitions do not precisely describe
tangents. The formal definition of a tangent is based on 1.​ Differentiate the function to obtain its derivative
the concept of limits. 𝑓'(𝑥), which represents the slope of the tangent
line at any point.
A tangent line to a curve at a specific point is a straight 2.​ Substitute the given x-value into the derivative
line that just "touches" the curve at that point without to find the slope at that specific point
crossing it (or cutting through it). More precisely, the 𝑚 = 𝑓'(𝑥1)
tangent line represents the best linear approximation of 3.​ Find the y-coordinate by substituting into the
the curve near that point. original function:
𝑦1 = 𝑓(𝑥1)

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𝑦 − 5 = 7𝑥 − 14
4.​ Use the point-slope formula to write the
𝑦 = 7𝑥 − 9
equation of the tangent line:
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1)
The equation of the tangent line is y = 7x - 9.
where (𝑥1, 𝑦1) is the given point.

Note that there are cases where a line is tangent to the EXAMPLE 2:
line itself. A tangent line to a line is the line itself.
Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve:
3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 1
EXAMPLE 1:
at x = 1.

Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve:

2 SOLUTION:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 5
1.​ Find the derivative
at x = 2.
3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 1
2
SOLUTION: 𝑓'(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 4

1.​ Find the derivative

2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 5 2.​ Compute the slope at x = 1
2
𝑓'(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3 𝑓'(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 4
2
𝑓'(1) = 3(1) − 4 = 3 − 4 =− 1

2.​ Compute the slope at x = 2

𝑓'(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3 3.​ Find the point of tangency (finding y)
3
𝑓'(2) = 2(2) + 3 = 4 + 3 = 7 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 1
3
𝑓(1) = (1) − 4(1) + 1 = 1 − 4 + 1 =− 2

3.​ Find the point of tangency (finding y) The point is (1,-2), given that x = 1.
2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 5
2 4.​ Use the point-slope form
𝑓(2) = (2) + 3(2) − 5 = 4 + 6 − 5 = 5
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1)
The point is (2,5), given that x = 2.
𝑦 − (− 2) =− 1(𝑥 − 1)

4.​ Use the point-slope form

𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1) 5.​ Simplify the equation
𝑦 − (− 2) =− 1(𝑥 − 1)
𝑦 − 5 = 7(𝑥 − 2)
𝑦 + 2 =− 𝑥 + 1
𝑦 =− 𝑥 − 1
5.​ Simplify the equation
𝑦 − 5 = 7(𝑥 − 2)
The equation of the tangent line is y = -x - 1.

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3.​ Find the y-coordinate by substituting into the

Not all the time curves have tangent lines. It is possible original function:

that a tangent line to a point does not exist under these 𝑦1 = 𝑓(𝑥1)

conditions: 4.​ Calculate the slope of the normal line as:

1.​ The function is not continuous at 𝑥1

2.​ The function has a sharp corner/cusp at P. 1

𝑚𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 =− 𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡
Sharp corners typically appear on graphs
where only lines are involved. Cusps, on the
other hand, occur when one graph involved
5.​ Use the point-slope formula to write the
represents a nonlinear function.
equation of the normal line:

𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙(𝑥 − 𝑥1)

EXAMPLE 1:

Find the equation of the normal line to the curve:

2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 5
LESSON 1.2: EQUATION OF NORMAL LINES
at x = 2.

DEFINITION OF NORMAL LINES SOLUTION:

Recall from the earlier problem that the slope of the
A normal line to a curve at a given point is a line
tangent line is 7, and the point of tangency is (2,5).
perpendicular to the tangent line at that point. The
The next step is to find the slope of the normal line.
process of getting its equation is relatively similar to
that of getting a tangent line’s equation.
1
𝑚𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 =− 𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡
FINDING NORMAL LINE EQUATIONS 1
𝑚𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 =− 7
Here are the steps to find the equation of a normal line
to a curve at a given point:

Then, we are going to use the point-slope form to find

1.​ Differentiate the function to obtain its derivative the equation (using the point of tangency and
𝑓'(𝑥), which represents the slope of the tangent normal slope).
line at any point.
2.​ Substitute the given x-value into the derivative
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙(𝑥 − 𝑥1)
to find the slope at that specific point
𝑚 = 𝑓'(𝑥1)

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𝑦 − 5 =−
1
(𝑥 − 2) LESSON 2: POLYNOMIAL CURVE TRACING
7
𝑥 2
𝑦 − 5 =− 7
+ 7
𝑥 2 35 𝑥 37 DEFINITION OF POLYNOMIAL CURVE TRACING
𝑦 =− 7
+ 7
+ 7
→ 𝑦 =− 7
+ 7
Polynomial curve tracing is a systematic approach to
𝑥 37
The equation of the normal line is 𝑦 =− 7
+ 7
. understanding the shape and behavior of a polynomial
function. By analyzing its main parts, we can sketch an
accurate representation of its graph without relying on
EXAMPLE 2: a calculator. The process involves studying intercepts,
critical points, concavity, symmetry, and end behavior.
Find the equation of the normal line to the curve:
3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 1
THEOREMS IN POLYNOMIAL CURVE TRACING
at x = 1.
Let 𝑓 be defined on an interval and let 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 denote
SOLUTION: points in that interval.
Recall from the earlier problem that the slope of the
tangent line is -1, and the point of tangency is (1,-2). 1.​ 𝑓 is increasing on the interval if 𝑓(𝑥1) is less than
The next step is to find the slope of the normal line.
𝑓(𝑥2) whenever 𝑥1 is smaller than 𝑥2.

2.​ 𝑓 is decreasing on the interval if 𝑓(𝑥1) is greater

1
𝑚𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 =− 𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 than 𝑓(𝑥2) whenever 𝑥1 < 𝑥2.

1 3.​ 𝑓 is constant on the interval if 𝑓(𝑥1) is equal to

𝑚𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 =− −1
=1
𝑓(𝑥2) on all points 𝑥1 and 𝑥2.

Then, we are going to use the point-slope form to find

the equation (using the point of tangency and
normal slope).

𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙(𝑥 − 𝑥1)
Let 𝑓 be a function that is continuous on a closed
𝑦 − (− 2) = 1(𝑥 − 1) interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and differentiable on the open interval
(𝑎, 𝑏).
𝑦+2 =𝑥 − 1
𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1 − 2→𝑦 = 𝑥 − 3 1.​ If 𝑓'(𝑥) > 0 for every value of 𝑥 in (𝑎, 𝑏), then 𝑓 is
The equation of the normal line is 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 3. increasing on (𝑎, 𝑏).
2.​ If 𝑓'(𝑥) < 0 for every value of 𝑥 in (𝑎, 𝑏), then 𝑓 is
decreasing on (𝑎, 𝑏).

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3.​ If 𝑓'(𝑥) = 0 for every value of 𝑥 in (𝑎, 𝑏), then 𝑓 is A function 𝑓(𝑥) has a relative maximum at 𝑥0 if there is
constant on (𝑎, 𝑏). an open interval around 𝑥0 where 𝑓(𝑥) is greater than or

equal to all other function values in that interval.

In other words, the theorem states that if 𝑓 is
Similarly, a function has a relative minimum at 𝑥0 if
differentiable on an open interval, then 𝑓 is said to be
there is an open interval around 𝑥0 where 𝑓(𝑥) is less
concave up on the open interval if the derivative of the
function 𝑓′ is increasing on that interval, and 𝑓 is said to than or equal to all other function values in that interval.

be concave down on the open interval if the derivative These points are called relative extrema, meaning they

of the function 𝑓′ is decreasing on that interval. are either a peak (relative maximum) or a valley
(relative minimum) within a localized region of the
function, even if they are not the highest or lowest
points overall (absolute extrema).

:
Let 𝑓 be twice differentiable on an open interval.
1.​ If 𝑓''(𝑥) > 0 for all values of 𝑥 in the open interval,
then 𝑓 is concave up on that interval.
2.​ If 𝑓''(𝑥) < 0 for all values of 𝑥 in the open interval,
then 𝑓 is concave down on that interval.
Suppose that 𝑓 is a function defined on an open
If 𝑓 is continuous on an open interval containing a value interval containing the point 𝑥0.
𝑥0, and if 𝑓 changes the direction of its concavity at the
If 𝑓 has a relative extremum at 𝑥 = 𝑥0, then 𝑥 = 𝑥0 is a
point (𝑥0, 𝑓(𝑥0) (from concave up to down and vice
critical point of 𝑓; that is, either 𝑓′(𝑥0) = 0 or 𝑓 is not
versa), then 𝑓 has an inflection point 𝑥0, and we call the
differentiable at 𝑥0.
point (𝑥0, 𝑓(𝑥0)) on the graph of 𝑓 an inflection point of 𝑓.

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This means the function rises and reaches a peak on 𝑥0

before falling.​

2.​ Relative Minimum:​

If f′(x) is negative (decreasing) to the left of 𝑥0

and positive (increasing) to the right of 𝑥0, then

f(x) has a relative minimum at 𝑥0​.

This means the function falls and reaches a valley at 𝑥0

before rising.​
The points 𝑥1, 𝑥2, 𝑥3, 𝑥4, and 𝑥5 are critical points. Of these,

𝑥1, 𝑥2, and 𝑥5 are stationary points. 3.​ No Relative Extremum:​

If f′(x) has the same sign (either always positive
or always negative) on both sides of 𝑥0, then

f(x) has no relative extremum at 𝑥0​.

This means the function either keeps increasing or

keeps decreasing without forming a peak or valley.

SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST

The Second Derivative Test, on the other hand, helps

determine whether a function has a relative maximum
FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST
or minimum at a critical point 𝑥0 by analyzing the
The First Derivative Test helps determine whether a second derivative f′′(x).
function has a relative maximum or minimum at a
critical point 𝑥0. It is based on how the first derivative 1.​ Relative Minimum:​
f′(x) behaves around 𝑥0. If f′(𝑥0) = 0 and f′′(𝑥0) > 0, then f(x) has a relative

minimum at 𝑥0.
1.​ Relative Maximum:​
If f′(x) is positive (increasing) to the left of 𝑥0 This means the function is concave up (shaped like a
and negative (decreasing) to the right of 𝑥0, "U") at 𝑥0, indicating a local low point.​
then f(x) has a relative maximum at 𝑥0
2.​ Relative Maximum:​
If f′(𝑥0) = 0 and f′′(𝑥0) < 0, then f(x) has a relative

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maximum at 𝑥0.​ 2.​ Absolute Minimum at 𝑥0 if f(𝑥0) is less than or

equal to f(x) for all values of x in the interval

This means the function is concave down (shaped like (example: f(𝑥0) ≤ f(x) for all x in the interval).
an upside-down "U") at 𝑥0, indicating a local high point.​ 3.​ Absolute Extremum at 𝑥0 if the function has

either an absolute maximum or an absolute

3.​ Inconclusive Case:​ minimum at that point.​
If f′(𝑥0) = 0 and f′′(𝑥0) = 0, the test is

inconclusive. This means the function achieves the largest or

smallest value possible within the given interval at 𝑥0.
The function may have a relative maximum, a relative
minimum, or neither at 𝑥0. In this case, other methods,

such as the First Derivative Test, must be used to

determine the nature of 𝑥0.​

ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM (EXTREMA)

Consider an interval in the domain of a function f and a

point 𝑥0 within that interval. We say that f has an:

1.​ Absolute Maximum at 𝑥0 if f(𝑥0) is greater than ROLLE’S THEOREM

or equal to f(x) for all x in the interval (example: Let f(x) be a function that is continuous on the closed
f(𝑥0) ≥ f(x) for all x in the interval). interval [a,b] and differentiable on the open interval

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(a,b). Suppose that the function takes the same value At such a peak or valley, the tangent line must be
at the endpoints, meaning: horizontal, meaning the derivative is zero at that point.
Therefore, there must be at least one value c in (a,b)
f(a) = 0 and f(b) = 0 where f′(c) = 0, which ultimately means the function
has a critical point in the interval.
Then, Rolle’s Theorem guarantees that there exists at
least one point c in the interval (a,b) such that:
EXAMPLE 1:

f′(c) = 0. Check if the following function applies Rolle’s

Theorem. If so, find the point where f’(c) = 0 (where
the tangent is horizontal).

2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4 on the interval [2, − 2]

SOLUTION:
1.​ Check if the function satisfies the three
Conditions to Apply Rolle’s Theorem​
conditions.
Rolle’s Theorem states that if a function satisfies the
a.​ CONTINUITY - The function is
following three conditions:
continuous at all points considering
○​ It is continuous on a closed interval
that the function is a polynomial.
[a,b].
b.​ DIFFERENTIABILITY - The function is
○​ It is differentiable on the open interval
differentiable at all points as the
(a,b).
derivative f’(x) = 2x is defined for all
○​ It has equal function values at the
values of x.
endpoints, meaning f(a) = f(b).​
c.​ ENDPOINTS
2
𝑓(2) = 𝑥 − 4
If the following conditions are satisfied, then there must
2
𝑓(2) = 2 − 4 = 4 − 4 = 0
be at least one point c in (a,b) where the derivative is
zero, meaning f′(c) = 0.​
2
𝑓(− 2) = 𝑥 − 4
2
This should happen since f(a) = 0 and f(b) = 0; the 𝑓(− 2) = (− 2) − 4 = 4 − 4 = 0
function starts at 0 and ends at 0. If f(x) is not a
constant function, then somewhere between a and b, Since f(2) = f(-2), then Rolle’s
the function must either increase and then decrease Theorem is applicable in this function
(creating a peak) or decrease and then increase
(creating a valley).​ 2.​ Equate the derivative of the function to zero
2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4

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Imagine yourself driving a car from point A to point B.

𝑓'(𝑥) = 2𝑥
Your average speed over the entire trip is given by the
0 = 2𝑥
formula total distance over total time (d/t).
0 =𝑥
●​ The Mean Value Theorem states that at some
point during your trip, your instantaneous
In this function, the tangent line is horizontal at (0,0).
speed (what the speedometer shows) must
equal this average speed.

EXAMPLE 1:

2
MEAN-VALUE THEOREM Suppose we have the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 in the interval
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
Let f(x) be a function that satisfies two conditions: [1, 3]. Find the value of c such that 𝑓'(𝑐) = 𝑏−𝑎
1.​ Continuity on a closed interval [a,b] - The
function should not have any jumps, gaps, or SOLUTION:
asymptotes. Let us check first if the function applied the MVT
2.​ Differentiability on an open interval (a,b)(a, Theorem.
b)(a,b) - The derivative of the function should
be defined at all points in (a,b), meaning there 1.​ Check if the function satisfies the conditions.
are no sharp corners or cusps. a.​ CONTINUITY - The function is
continuous at all points considering
If the conditions are satisfied, then there exists at least that the function is a polynomial.
one point c in (a,b) such that: b.​ DIFFERENTIABILITY - The function is
differentiable at all points as the
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓'(𝑐) = derivative f’(x) = 2x is defined for all
𝑏−𝑎
values of x.

This is also known as the formula for getting the secant

Since the functions follow these
slope.
conditions, we can conclude that the
function applies the MVT Theorem.
This means that the derivative at some point c is equal
to the average rate of change over the interval. In
2.​ Compute for the secant line slope.
simpler terms, this means that somewhere along the 2
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑥
curve, the function's tangent line slope must equal the 2
𝑓(1) = 𝑥
average rate of change over the interval.​ 2
𝑓(1) = (1) = 1

In an informal view, take this situation as an example:

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2 the derivative of the function f'(x) = 0 or does

𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑥
2 not exist, but the point lies within the interval.
𝑓(3) = 𝑥
2.​ Evaluate the function f(x) at all critical points
2
𝑓(3) = (3) = 9
found in Step 1, as well as at the endpoints of
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓'(𝑐) = 𝑏−𝑎 the interval, a and b.
9−1 3.​ Compare the values obtained in Step 2:
𝑓'(𝑐) = 3−1 a.​ The largest value is the absolute
9−1 8
𝑓'(𝑐) = = = 4 maximum of f on the interval [a,b].
3−1 2
b.​ The smallest value is the absolute
minimum of f on the interval [a,b].​
3.​ Find c such that f’(c) = 4.
2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
Suppose f is continuous and has exactly one relative
𝑓'(𝑥) = 2𝑥
extremum at 𝑥0 in an interval:

2𝑐 = 4
𝑐 =2 (a) Relative Minimum and Absolute Minimum:
●​ If f has a relative minimum at 𝑥0​, this means

In this function, the instantaneous rate of change that f(𝑥0) is the smallest value in a local region
equates the average rate of change at x = 2 or c = 2. around 𝑥0.​

Since f has exactly one relative extremum, and there

EXTREME VALUE THEOREM
are no other points in the interval where the function
The Extreme Value Theorem (EVT) and the procedure reaches a lower value, f(𝑥0) is the absolute minimum of
for finding absolute extrema help to determine the
f on the interval.​
largest and smallest values of a continuous function on
a closed interval.
(b) Relative Maximum and Absolute Maximum:
●​ If f has a relative maximum at 𝑥0, this means
If a function f is continuous on a closed interval [a,b],
that f(𝑥0) is the largest value in a local region
then f must have both an absolute maximum and an
around 𝑥0.​
absolute minimum on that interval. Also, if a function
has an absolute extremum on an open interval (a,b),
then the extremum must occur at a critical point of the Similarly, since f has exactly one relative extremum and
function. there are no other points in the interval where the
function reaches a higher value, f(𝑥0) is the absolute

maximum of f on the interval.

PROCEDURE FOR FINDING EXTREMA

1.​ Find the critical points of f within the open

interval (a,b). Critical points are values where

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In both cases, the fact that there is only one relative

The extrema of the function are (1,6) (local
extremum ensures that it must also be the absolute
maximum) and (3,2) (local minimum).
extremum on the given interval.

EXAMPLE 1: EXAMPLE 2:

𝑥
Find the extrema of the function: Find the extrema of the function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
3 2 𝑥 +1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 9𝑥 + 2

SOLUTION:
SOLUTION:
1.​ Find the derivative f’(x) (using quotient rule)
1.​ Find the derivative f’(x)
𝑥
3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 9𝑥 + 2
2 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 +1
2
𝑓'(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 12𝑥 + 9 2
(1)(𝑥 +1)−(𝑥)(2𝑥)
𝑓'(𝑥) = 2 2
(𝑥 +1)
2.​ Find the critical points (setting f’(x) = 0) 2 2
2 𝑥 +1−2𝑥
𝑓'(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 12𝑥 + 9 𝑓'(𝑥) = 2 2
2 (𝑥 +1)
0 = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3 2
1−𝑥
0 = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1) 𝑓'(𝑥) = 2 2
(𝑥 +1)
𝐶𝑅𝐼𝑇𝐼𝐶𝐴𝐿 𝑃𝑂𝐼𝑁𝑇𝑆: 𝑥 = 1; 𝑥 = 3

3.​ Evaluate f(x) at critical points 2.​ Find the critical points (setting f’(x) = 0)
2
3 2 1−𝑥
𝑓(1) = 𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 9𝑥 + 2 𝑓'(𝑥) = 2 2
3 2 (𝑥 +1)
𝑓(1) = (1) − 6(1) + 9(1) + 2 2
0 = 1 − 𝑥 (setting the numerator to 0)
𝑓(1) = 1 − 6 + 9 + 2
2
𝑓(1) = 6 1 =𝑥
Considering x = 1, the critical point is (1,6) ± 1= 𝑥
𝐶𝑅𝐼𝑇𝐼𝐶𝐴𝐿 𝑃𝑂𝐼𝑁𝑇𝑆: 𝑥 = 1; 𝑥 =− 1
3 2
𝑓(3) = 𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 9𝑥 + 2
3 2 3.​ Evaluate f(x) at critical points
𝑓(3) = (3) − 6(3) + 9(3) + 2
𝑥
𝑓(3) = 27 − 54 + 27 + 2 𝑓(1) = 2
𝑥 +1
𝑓(3) = 2
1
Considering x = 3, the critical point is (3,2) 𝑓(1) = 2
(1) +1
1
4.​ Compare values 𝑓(1) = 1+1
Since f(1) > f(3), the following can be concluded: 1
●​ Local Maximum at (1,6) 𝑓(1) = 2
●​ Local Minimum at (3,2) 1
Considering x = 1, the critical point is (1, )
2

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𝑓(− 1) =
𝑥 EXAMPLE 1:
2
𝑥 +1
−1 2 2
𝑓(− 1) = Trace the curve of the equation, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 9.
2
(−1) +1
−1
𝑓(− 1) = 1+1
SOLUTION:
−1 1
𝑓(− 1) = =−
2 2 1.​ Solve for y.
1 2 2
Considering x = -1, the critical point is (-1,− ) 𝑥 +𝑦 = 9
2
2 2
𝑦 = 9 −𝑥
4.​ Compare values 2
𝑦 = 9 −𝑥
Since f(1) > f(-1), the following can be concluded:
1 2.​ Find the x and y-intercepts.
●​ Local Maximum at (1, )
2 FINDING X-INTERCEPT (y = 0)
1 2 2
●​ Local Minimum at (-1,− ) 𝑥 +𝑦 = 9
2
2
𝑥 +0 =9
2
1 𝑥 =9
The extrema of the function are (1, ) (local
2 𝑥 =± 3
1
maximum) and (-1,− ) (local minimum). X-INTERCEPTS: (-3,0), (3,0)
2

FINDING Y-INTERCEPT (x = 0)
2 2
PROCEDURE IN POLYNOMIAL CURVE TRACING 𝑥 +𝑦 = 9
2
0 +𝑦 = 9
1.​ If the equation is given in the form of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0,
2
2 𝑦 =9
solve for 𝑦 or 𝑦 .
𝑦 =± 3
2.​ Determine the 𝑥 and 𝑦 intercepts.
Y-INTERCEPTS: (0,-3), (0,3)
3.​ Determine the asymptotes, if there are any.
Also, determine the intersection of the curve
3.​ Determine the asymptotes.
with the horizontal asymptotes (the curve may
Since this is an equation for a circle, there is
intercept the horizontal asymptotes but not the
no asymptote for this function.
vertical asymptotes).
4.​ Locate the critical points and determine the
4.​ Find the critical points (First Derivative Test).
maxima/minima using the First Derivative
Differentiate the function through implicit
Test.
differentiation.
5.​ Identify change in concavity (Point of
2 2
Inflection) using the Second Derivative Test. 𝑥 +𝑦 = 9
𝑑𝑦
6.​ Trace the curve. Plot a few points if necessary. 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥
= 0
𝑑𝑦
2𝑦 𝑑𝑥
=− 2𝑥

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𝑑𝑦 −2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦
(−𝑦)−(−𝑥 𝑑𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥
= 2𝑦
𝑑𝑦
=
2 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
=− 𝑦 2 (−𝑦)−(−𝑥(− 𝑦 ))
𝑥
𝑑𝑦
2 = 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑦
Equate the derivative to 0.
2
2 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 (−𝑦)−( 𝑦
))
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 2 = 2
𝑑𝑥
=− 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑦
2 2 2
𝑥 𝑑𝑦 −(𝑦 +𝑥 )
0 =− 2 = 3
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑦
For any fraction to equate to 0, the numerator Since there were no sign changes, the
must be equal to 0. Therefore, the critical function does not have an inflection point.
value for this differentiation is x = 0.
8.​ Trace the curve. Plot the points if necessary.
5.​ Evaluate the critical value to the original
function. Let us first plot the points we have solved
2 2
𝑥 +𝑦 = 9 (intercepts and critical values).
0 +𝑦 = 9
2
X-INTERCEPTS: (3,0), (-3,0)
2
𝑦 =9 Y-INTERCEPTS: (0,3), (0,-3)

𝑦 =± 3 CRITICAL POINTS: (0,3), (0,-3)

CRITICAL POINTS: (0,-3), (0,3)

6.​ Compare the two values.

(0,3) is the local maximum while (0,-3) is the
local minimum as 3 > -3.

7.​ Check for inflection points (Second Derivative

Test).
𝑥
Differentiate the function − and check for
𝑦
sign changes.

USING QUOTIENT RULE

Then, trace the curve.
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
=− 𝑦
2 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 (𝑦)(−1)−(−𝑥)• 𝑑𝑥
2 = 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑦

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Y-INTERCEPT: (0,3)

3.​ Determine the asymptotes.

Since this is a quadratic function, there is no
asymptote.

4.​ Find the critical points (First Derivative Test).

Differentiate the function through power rule.
2
𝑦 = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 2𝑥 − 4

Equate the derivative to 0.

EXAMPLE 2: 2𝑥 − 4 = 0
2𝑥 = 4
2
Trace the curve of the equation, 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3. 𝑥 = 2
The critical value is x = 2.
SOLUTION:
1.​ Solve for y. 5.​ Evaluate the critical value to the original
Since the equation is already equated to y function.
2
(or the equation is not implicit), there is no 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3
need to do this step. Simply skip this part. 2
𝑦 = (2) − 4(2) + 3
𝑦 = 4 −8+ 3
2.​ Find the x and y-intercepts. 𝑦 =− 1
FINDING X-INTERCEPT (y = 0) CRITICAL POINT: (2,-1)
2
𝑦 = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3
2
0 = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3 6.​ Compare the two values.
0 = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1) Since there is only one value, let us analyze
x = 1, x = 3 the function instead. Recall the previous
X-INTERCEPTS: (3,0), (1,0) lesson in pre-calculus where the determinant
of the direction in which the parabola opens
FINDING Y-INTERCEPT (x = 0) is the coefficient of x with degree 2. If the
2
2
𝑦 = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3 coefficient of 𝑥 a is positive, then the
2
𝑦 = (0) − 4(0) + 3 parabola opens upwards. The critical point

𝑦 = 0 −0+ 3 (2,-1), considering that the parabola opens

𝑦 = 3 infinitely upwards as x approaches infinity

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(or negative infinity), is the local minima of

the function.

7.​ Check for inflection points (Second Derivative

Test).
Differentiate the function 2𝑥 − 4.

USING POWER RULE

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 2𝑥 − 4
2
𝑑𝑦
2 = 2
𝑑𝑥

Since there were no sign changes, the

function does not have an inflection point.
Furthermore, considering that this is a
constant and never zero, the concavity never
changes. Therefore, there is no inflection Then, trace the curve.
point.

8.​ Trace the curve. Plot the points if necessary.

Let us first plot the points we have solved

(intercepts and critical values).
X-INTERCEPTS: (3,0), (1,0)
Y-INTERCEPT: (0,3)
CRITICAL POINT: (2,-1)

EXAMPLE 3:

3 2
Trace the curve of the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 9𝑥.

1.​ Solve for y.

3 2
𝑦 = 𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 9𝑥(Simply change the f(x) to y)
2.​ Find the x and y-intercepts.

●​ x-intercepts

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Therefore, the critical values are x=1 and x=3.

5.​ Evaluate the critical value to the original

function.

When x=1,

X-INTERCEPTS: (0,0), (3,0)

●​ y-intercepts

Y-INTERCEPT: (0,0)

When x=3,

3.​ Determine the asymptotes.

Since this is a polynomial function, there are no
asymptotes

4.​ Find the critical points (First Derivative Test)

Differentiating the function through the power rule: 6.​ Compare the two values.
(3,0) is the local maximum while (1,4) is the
local minimum as 4> 0.
7.​ Check for inflection points (Second Derivative
Test)
2
Differentiate the function 3𝑥 − 12𝑥 + 9.

FINDING THE CRITICAL POINTS Differentiating the function through the power rule:

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When x=2, Then, trace the curve.

The inflection point is (2,2).

9.​ Trace the curve. Plot the points if necessary.

Let us first plot the points we have solved

(intercepts and critical values).
X-INTERCEPTS: (0,0), (3,0)
Y-INTERCEPT: (0,0) LESSON 3: OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS
CRITICAL POINTS: (3,0) (1,4)
INFLECTION POINT: (2,2)
DEFINITION OF OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS

Optimization problems involve maximizing or

minimizing a function under certain conditions. These
problems are widely used in real-world applications,
such as maximizing profit, minimizing cost, or
optimizing the use of materials.

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PROCEDURE IN SOLVING APPLIED EXTREMA PROBLEMS

2.​ Create a formula for the quantity to
1.​ Draw an appropriate figure and label the
maximize.
quantities relevant to the problem.
2.​ Find a formula for the quantity to be maximized
In this problem, we want to maximise the
or minimized.
area. Let’s assign a variable to the area as A.
3.​ Using the conditions stated in the problem to
eliminate variables, express the quantity to be
𝐴 = 𝑥 ·𝑦
maximized or minimized as a function of one
variable.
3.​ Express A in terms of one variable (either x or
4.​ Find the interval of possible values for this
y)
variable from the physical restrictions in the
problem.
The perimeter is fixed as 100 meters (cannot
5.​ If applicable, use the techniques of the
be manipulated or changed; constant).
preceding section to obtain the maximum or
minimum.
The perimeter of a rectangle is determined
by adding twice the width and twice the
EXAMPLE 1: length. Let us create an equation for the
perimeter:
You have 100 meters of fencing and want to enclose
a rectangular area. What dimensions should you
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 100 → 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 50
choose to maximize the enclosed area?

We will then solve for y (for this instance only

SOLUTION:
as an example) so that we can express the
1.​ Draw a figure to visualize the problem.
mentioned equation in terms of one variable,
x.

𝑦 = 50 − 𝑥

Substitute y as 50 - x in the equation

determining the value of A.

2
𝐴(𝑥) = 𝑥 · (50 − 𝑥) = 50𝑥 − 𝑥
Let x be the length of the rectangular area (in
meters), and y be the width of the 4.​ Determine the possible values of x.
rectangular area (in meters).

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Given that this is a problem involving Knowing that the maximum value possible
measurement, the values must be positive. for x is 25, we can now solve for y using the
We must follow these conditions: earlier equation.

𝑥 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 50 − 𝑥 > 0 → 𝑥 < 50 𝑦 = 50 − 𝑥

𝑦 = 50 − 25
So, the value of x is within (0,50). 𝑦 = 25

5.​ Find the maximum area. We can now conclude that the most optimal
way to maximize the area is by placing the
Let us take the derivative of the formula for A. fences in a 25x25 area, which is a square.
2
𝐴(𝑥) = 50𝑥 − 𝑥 → 𝐴'(𝑥) = 50 − 2𝑥 You might wonder, “The problem asks for a
To find the extremum of the function, let us rectangle, not a square!” Well, let us apply the
equate the first derivative to zero. logic that all squares are rectangles, but not
all rectangles are squares. We can say that
𝐴'(𝑥) = 50 − 2𝑥 squares are rectangles as they possess the
0 = 50 − 2𝑥 features of a rectangle. They have adjacent
− 50 =− 2𝑥 sides of the same measure and four right
25 = 𝑥 angles. In conclusion, our answer is still
correct despite the measurement calling for
At this point, we can see that x = 25 is a a square.
potential minimum or maximum. We’re
going to check if it is a maximum or
minimum value using the second derivative
EXAMPLE 2:
test.

What is the number x in the interval [0,3] such that

𝐴'(𝑥) = 50 − 2𝑥
the difference between the square of the number
𝐴''(𝑥) =− 2
and twice the number is minimized?

We can see that A’’(x) = -2, which is less than

SOLUTION:
0. According to the theorem, “if f′(𝑥0) = 0 and
1.​ Draw a figure to visualize the problem.
f′′(𝑥0) < 0, then f(x) has a relative maximum

at 𝑥0,” the function has a concave opening We don’t need to draw a figure since we
downwards. Therefore, x = 25 is a maximum. already have the key information to solve the
problem.

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2.​ Create a formula for the quantity to minimize.

The minimum value is -1 at x=1.

In this problem, we want to minimize the
function:

2
𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2𝑥 EXAMPLE 3:

A box is to be made from a rectangular piece of

Where 𝑥 ∈ [−2, 2]. Note that 𝑓 is continuous on [−2, 2] cardboard that measures 12 inches by 8 inches by
and thus, we can apply cutting equal squares from each corner and folding
The Extreme Value Theorem. up the sides. Find the dimensions of the box that will
produce the maximum volume.
3.​ Find the critical numbers

2
𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2𝑥
𝑦' = 2𝑥 − 2
0 = 2(𝑥 − 1)
𝑥=1
Therefore, our critical value is x=1.

4.​ Compare the function value at the critical

number and the endpoints: SOLUTION:
1.​ Draw a figure to visualize the problem.
2 Let the length be 12-2x, the width 8-2x, and the height
𝑓(− 2) = (− 2) − 2(− 2) = 4 + 4 = 8
x.

2
𝑓(1) = 1 − 2(1) = 1 − 2 =− 1

2
𝑓(2) = 2 − 2(2) = 4 − 4 = 0

Since the minimum value is the lowest point in the

graph, the minimum value is -1 at x=1.

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2 3 3
𝑉 = 96(1. 57) − 40(1. 57) + 4(1. 57) = 67. 60𝑖𝑛
2.​ Create a formula for the quantity to
maximize.
4.​ Use the critical value to get the dimensions

In this problem, we want to maximize the

The dimensions of the box that produce the largest
volume. Lets assign variables to the volume
volume are:
V:
Length=12 − 2𝑥 = 12 − 2(1. 57) = 8. 86𝑖𝑛
Width= 8 − 2𝑥 = 8 − 2(1. 57) = 4. 86𝑖𝑛
𝑉 = (12 − 2𝑥)(8 − 2𝑥)(𝑥)
Height= = 𝑥 = 1. 57𝑖𝑛

3.​ Find the critical values

LESSON 4: TIME RATES
Expand the following:
Related rates problems involve finding how the rate of
𝑉 = (12 − 2𝑥)(8 − 2𝑥)(𝑥) change of one quantity changes concerning time,
2
𝑉 = (12 − 2𝑥)(8𝑥 − 2𝑥 ) based on how another related quantity changes. These
2 2 3 types of problems are commonly found in fields like
𝑉 = 96𝑥 − 24𝑥 − 16𝑥 + 4𝑥
physics, engineering, and in everyday situations such
2 3
𝑉 = 96𝑥 − 40𝑥 + 4𝑥 as fluid flow, motion, and geometry.
Use the power rule to get the derivative and equate it
to 0: Let x be a function that depends on time t.
2
0 = 12𝑥 − 80𝑥 + 96 ●​ dx/dt represents the rate of change of x with
2 respect to time t
0 = 3𝑥 − 20𝑥 + 24
●​ dx/dt is positive when x increases over time.
Then, use the quadratic formula to extract the roots
●​ dx/dt ​is negative when x decreases over time.​
10± 100−72
𝑥= 3
The unit of measurement for dx/dt is the unit of
10± 28 10±2 7
𝑥= 3
= 3 measurement for x, divided by the unit of measurement
for t.

10+2 7
At x= or x= 5.10,
3 For example, if x represents distance (in meters) and t
represents time (in seconds), then dx/dt has units of
2 3
𝑉 = 96(5. 10) − 40(5. 10) + 4(5. 10) =− 20. 196 meters per second.

10−2 7 A related rates problem involves multiple variables,

At x= or x= 1.57
3 each dependent on time, and seeks to find how the rate
of change of one variable relates to the rate of change

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of another. For instance, if y depends on x, the rate of ●​ Set up an equation that relates all the
change of y with respect to time, dy/dt, will be related changing quantities. This equation
to the rate of change of x, dx/dt. Therefore, the rate at should be valid for any time t.
which y changes over time depends on how fast x 7.​ Differentiate the equation implicitly with
changes over time. respect to t.
●​ Differentiate both sides of the equation
from Step 6 with respect to time t. This
PROCEDURE IN SOLVING TIME RATES
will give you the rates of change of the
1.​ Illustrate the problem (if possible) to visualize variables.
the problem or situation. 8.​ Substitute known values into the
2.​ Identify quantities that change over time and differentiated equation.
represent them with variables. ●​ Substitute the known values (from Step
●​ Assign variables to quantities that are 4 and Step 5) into the differentiated
changing with respect to time t. Do not equation. If some quantities are still
assign variables to constant quantities unknown, use the conditions written in
that do not change with time. Step 4 to solve for them.
3.​ Write down any numerical facts (given 9.​ Solve for what is being asked.
information). ●​ After substituting the known values,
●​ Record the numerical values and initial solve for the unknown rate of change.
conditions provided in the problem. 10.​ Write a conclusion with units.
These could be initial positions, speeds, ●​ Once you solve for the rate of change,
or other known values. write your final answer along with the
4.​ Interpret each rate of change as the derivative correct units of measurement.
of a variable with respect to time.
●​ Rates of change are represented by
EXAMPLE 1:
derivatives. Interpret each rate of
change in terms of derivatives with
A 10-ft ladder leans against the wall. The base slides
respect to time.
away at 1 ft/s. How fast is the wall sliding down when
5.​ Identify which rate of change is being asked.
the base is 6 ft from the wall?
●​ Clearly identify what rate of change is
being asked, and specify at which point
SOLUTION:
in time or under what conditions the
rate is being computed.
1.​ Illustrate the problem (if possible)
6.​ Write an equation showing the relationship of
all variables.

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plausible relation we can use is the

Pythagorean theorem, which involves right
triangles. We can interpret the situation
through this equation:

2 2 2
ℎ(𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡) = 10

First, we are going to solve for h when x = 6

(not taking time into account yet).

2 2 2
ℎ + 6 = 10
2
2.​ Identify the quantities that change over time ℎ + 36 = 100
2
with variables. ℎ = 100 − 36
2
ℎ = 64
In this instance, the given values are the
2
10-foot ladder, the height, and the distance ℎ =8
from the wall. From the given, the only value
that is constant (fixed; does not change) is 5.​ Differentiate the equation implicitly with
the length of the ladder, and the values that respect to time.
change with time are the height (given by
h(t)) and the distance from the wall (given For convenience, we will use the Pythagorean
by x(t)). equation first to differentiate implicitly. We
will apply the chain rule on both variable to
3.​ Write given numerical facts. differentiate it with respect to time.
.
2 2 2
Besides that the ladder is 10 feet long, we can ℎ + 𝑥 = 10
also see that the rate of change in this 𝑑 2 2 𝑑
𝑑𝑡
(ℎ + 𝑥 ) = 𝑑𝑟
(100)
problem (which is dx/dt) is 1 ft/s (the base
𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑥
slides out from the wall in this rate), and we 2ℎ 𝑑𝑡
+ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑡
=0
are asked to find dh/dt when x = 6 ft.
We are then going to substitute the known
4.​ Relate the variables with an equation values and then solve for what is being
asked.
In the diagram, we can see that the problem
creates a right triangle; therefore, the most x=6

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SECOND SEMESTER | A.Y. 2024-2045 | PREPARED BY THE MATH CLUB ACADEMIC COMMITTEE

h=8
dx/dt = 1 ft/s
𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑥
2ℎ 𝑑𝑡
+ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑡
=0
𝑑ℎ
2(8) 𝑑𝑡
+ 2(6)(1) = 0
𝑑ℎ
16 𝑑𝑡
+ 12 = 0
𝑑ℎ
16 𝑑𝑡
=− 12
𝑑ℎ −12
𝑑𝑡
= 16
𝑑ℎ 3
𝑑𝑡
=− 4
2.​ Identify the quantities that change over time
with variables.
The top slides down at -¾ or -0.75 ft/s when
the base is 6 feet away from the wall. This is
In this instance, the given values are the area,
true because as x, the distance from the wall,
rate of the area, and radius of the pond. From
increases, the height, or where the top of the
the given, the values that change with time
ladder is located, decreases, maintaining the
are the rate of the area (given by dA/dt) and
length of the ladder, which is 10 feet. It is
the radius of the pond (given by dr/dt).
natural that the answer we should get is
negative to signify the ladder sliding down.
6.​ Write given numerical facts.

The top slides down at -¾ or -0.75 ft/s.

Besides that the area is 81/2π, we can also
see that the rate of the radius in this problem
2
(which is dr/dt) is 5/6 𝑐𝑚 /𝑠, and we are
asked to find dA/dt when A=81/2π .
EXAMPLE 2:

7.​ Relate the variables with an equation

A water droplet falls onto a still pond and creates
concentric circular ripples. Assuming that the radius
2 In the diagram, since it is involving circles; the
is increasing at 5/6 𝑐𝑚 /𝑠, find the rate at which the
most plausible relation we can use is the
area is increasing at the instant when the area is
area of the circle. We can interpret the
81/2π.
situation through this equation:

SOLUTION:
2
𝐴 = π𝑟
1.​ Illustrate the problem (if possible)

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 COURSE OUTCOME 4: Application of Differentiation MATH05

SECOND SEMESTER | A.Y. 2024-2045 | PREPARED BY THE MATH CLUB ACADEMIC COMMITTEE

First, we are going to solve for r when A=

81/2π (not taking time into account yet).

2
𝐴 = π𝑟
2
81/2 π = π𝑟
2
81/2 = 𝑟
9/ 2 = 𝑟

8.​ Differentiate the equation implicitly with

respect to time.

We are given:
2
𝐴 = 81/2π 𝑑𝑟/𝑑𝑡 = 5/6 𝑐𝑚 /𝑠 𝑟 = 9/ 2

DIfferentiate and plug in the values:

2
𝐴 = π𝑟
𝑑𝐴/𝑑𝑡 = 2π𝑟
𝑑𝐴/𝑑𝑡 = 2π𝑟 𝑑𝑟/𝑑𝑡.
9 5 2
𝑑𝐴/𝑑𝑡 = 2π( ) 6
𝑐𝑚 /𝑠.
2
15 2 2
𝑑𝐴/𝑑𝑡 = 2
𝑐𝑚 /𝑠.

The rate at which the area is increasing at the instant

15 2 2
when the area is 81/2π is 2
𝑐𝑚 /𝑠.

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