2

Systems of Linear Equations

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2.2 Direct Methods for Solving Linear
Systems

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Matrices and Echelon Form

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Matrices and Echelon Form (1 of 1)
Definition
A matrix is in row echelon form if it satisfies the following
properties:

1. Any rows consisting entirely of zeros are at the bottom.

2. In each nonzero row, the first nonzero entry (called the
leading entry) is in a column to the left of any leading
entries below it.

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Example 2.8
Assuming that each of the following matrices is an
augmented matrix, write out the corresponding systems of
linear equations and solve them.

Solution:
We first remind ourselves that the last column in an
augmented matrix is the vector of constant terms. The first
matrix then corresponds to the system
2x1 + 4x2 = 1
−x2 = 2
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Example 2.8 – Solution (1 of 2)
Notice that we have dropped the last equation 0 = 0, or
0x1 + 0x2 = 0, which is clearly satisfied for any values of x1
and x2.) Back substitution gives x2 = −2 and then
2x1 = 1 − 4(−2) = 9, so x1 = The solution is

The second matrix has the corresponding system

x1 = 1
x2 = 5
0=4

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Example 2.8 – Solution (2 of 2)
The last equation represents 0x1 + 0x2 = 4, which clearly has
no solutions. Therefore, the system has no solutions.
Similarly, the system corresponding to the fourth matrix has
no solutions.
For the system corresponding to the third matrix, we have
x1 + x2 + 2x3 = 1
x3 = 3
so x1 = 1 − 2(3) − x2 = −5 − x2. There are infinitely many
solutions, since we may assign x2 any value t to get the
parametric solution [−5 − t, t, 3].

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Elementary Row Operations

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Elementary Row Operations (1 of 2)
Definition
The following elementary row operations can be
performed on a matrix:
1. Interchange two rows.
2. Multiply a row by a nonzero constant.
3. Add a multiple of a row to another row.

The process of applying elementary row operations to bring

a matrix into row echelon form, called row reduction, is
used to reduce a matrix to echelon form.

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Example 2.9
Reduce the following matrix to echelon form:

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Example 2.9 – Solution (1 of 5)
We work column by column, from left to right and from top to
bottom. The strategy is to create a leading entry in a
column and then use it to create zeros below it.

The entry chosen to become a leading entry is called a

pivot, and this phase of the process is called pivoting.
Although not strictly necessary, it is often convenient to use
the second elementary row operation to make each leading
entry a 1.

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Example 2.9 – Solution (2 of 5)
We begin by introducing zeros into the first column below
the leading 1 in the first row:

The first column is now as we want it, so the next thing to do

is to create a leading entry in the second row, aiming for the
staircase pattern of echelon form.

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Example 2.9 – Solution (3 of 5)
In this case, we do this by interchanging rows. (We could
also add row 3 or row 4 to row 2.)

The pivot this time was −1.

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Example 2.9 – Solution (4 of 5)
We now create a zero at the bottom of column 2, using the
leading entry −1 in row 2:

Column 2 is now done. Noting that

we already have a leading entry in
column 3, we just pivot on the 8 to
introduce a zero below it. This is
easiest if we first divide row 3 by 8:
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Example 2.9 – Solution (5 of 5)
Now we use the leading 1 in row 3 to create a zero below it:

With this final step, we have reduced our matrix to echelon

form.

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Elementary Row Operations (2 of 2)
Definition
Matrices A and B are row equivalent if there is a sequence
of elementary row operations that converts A into B.

Theorem 2.1
Matrices A and B are row equivalent if and only if they can
be reduced to the same row echelon form.

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Gaussian Elimination

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Gaussian Elimination (1 of 2)
Gaussian Elimination
1. Write the augmented matrix of the system of linear
equations.

2. Use elementary row operations to reduce the augmented

matrix to row echelon form.

3. Using back substitution, solve the equivalent system that

corresponds to the row-reduced matrix.

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Example 2.10
Solve the system
2x2 + 3x3 = 8
2x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 5
x1 − x2 − 2x3 = −5

Solution:
The augmented matrix is

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Example 2.10 – Solution (1 of 4)
We proceed to reduce this matrix to row echelon form,
following the guidelines given for step 2 of the process. The
first nonzero column is column 1. We begin by creating a
leading entry at the top of this column; interchanging rows 1
and 3 is the best way to achieve this.

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Example 2.10 – Solution (2 of 4)
We now create a second
zero in the first column,
using the leading 1:

We now cover up the first row

and repeat the procedure. The
second column is the first
nonzero column of the
submatrix. Multiplying row 2
by will create a leading 1.

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Example 2.10 – Solution (3 of 4)
We now need another zero at the bottom of column 2:

The augmented matrix is now in row echelon form, and we

move to step 3.

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Example 2.10 – Solution (4 of 4)
The corresponding system is
x1 − x2 − 2x3 = 25
x2 + x3 = 3
x3 = 2

and back substitution gives x3 = 2, then x2 = 3 − x3 = 3 − 2 = 1,

and finally x1 = −5 + x2 + 2x3 = −5 + 1 + 4 = 0. We write the
solution in vector form as

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Gaussian Elimination (2 of 2)
Definition
The rank of a matrix is the number of nonzero rows in its
row echelon form.

Theorem 2.2
The Rank Theorem
Let A be the coefficient matrix of a system of linear
equations with n variables. If the system is consistent, then

number of free variables = n − rank(A)

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Gauss-Jordan Elimination

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Gauss-Jordan Elimination (1 of 2)
Definition
A matrix is in reduced row echelon form if it satisfies the
following properties:
1. It is in row echelon form.
2. The leading entry in each nonzero row is a 1 (called a
leading 1).
3. Each column containing a leading 1 has zeros
everywhere else.

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Gauss-Jordan Elimination (2 of 2)
Gauss-Jordan Elimination
1. Write the augmented matrix of the system of linear
equations.
2. Use elementary row operations to reduce the augmented
matrix to reduced row echelon form.
3. If the resulting system is consistent, solve for the leading
variables in terms of any remaining free variables.

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Example 2.13
Solve the system
w − x − y + 2z = 1
2w − 2x − y + 3z = 3
−w + x − y = −3
by Gauss-Jordan elimination.

Solution:
The reduction proceeds until
we reach the echelon form:

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Example 2.13 – Solution (1 of 2)
We now must create a zero above the leading 1 in the
second row, third column. We do this by adding row 2 to row
1 to obtain

The system has now been reduced to

w−x +z=2
y−z=1

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Example 2.13 – Solution (2 of 2)
It is now much easier to solve for the leading variables:
w=2+x−z and y=1+z

If we assign parameters x = s and z = t as before, the

solution can be written in vector form as

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Homogeneous Systems

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Homogeneous Systems (1 of 1)
Definition
A system of linear equations is called homogeneous if the
constant term in each equation is zero.

Theorem 2.3
If is a homogeneous system of m linear equations
with n variables, where m < n, then the system has infinitely
many solutions.

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